thank you in this age of Internet start-ups we expect the rapid
start-ups we expect the rapid
start-ups we expect the rapid development of new ideas into products
development of new ideas into products
development of new ideas into products with a rapid success or failure but some
with a rapid success or failure but some
with a rapid success or failure but some efforts especially scientific research
efforts especially scientific research
efforts especially scientific research have to take the long game sometimes
have to take the long game sometimes
have to take the long game sometimes decades to do this requires a
decades to do this requires a
decades to do this requires a willingness a capacity to do research
willingness a capacity to do research
willingness a capacity to do research you don’t know work that may take a very
you don’t know work that may take a very
you don’t know work that may take a very long time to know that it will work this
long time to know that it will work this
long time to know that it will work this requires not just the dedication of the
requires not just the dedication of the
requires not just the dedication of the researchers but steady backing from the
researchers but steady backing from the
researchers but steady backing from the backers and a bit of luck the LIGO
backers and a bit of luck the LIGO
backers and a bit of luck the LIGO project which just announced the first
project which just announced the first
project which just announced the first discovery gravitational waves ever this
discovery gravitational waves ever this
discovery gravitational waves ever this past year is one such effort for
past year is one such effort for
past year is one such effort for millennia we’ve used light to observe
millennia we’ve used light to observe
millennia we’ve used light to observe the cosmos historically to build an
the cosmos historically to build an
the cosmos historically to build an observatory you came with a design for a
observatory you came with a design for a
observatory you came with a design for a telescope and found some very rich
telescope and found some very rich
telescope and found some very rich person to pay for it hopefully before
person to pay for it hopefully before
person to pay for it hopefully before you passed away in the 19th century the
you passed away in the 19th century the
you passed away in the 19th century the richest man in California was convinced
richest man in California was convinced
richest man in California was convinced to build the most powerful telescope of
to build the most powerful telescope of
to build the most powerful telescope of its age as his tomb instead of building
its age as his tomb instead of building
its age as his tomb instead of building a very large pyramid in San Francisco
a very large pyramid in San Francisco
a very large pyramid in San Francisco these days most large telescopes are
these days most large telescopes are
these days most large telescopes are funded by governments it makes them
funded by governments it makes them
funded by governments it makes them subject to the whims of public opinion
subject to the whims of public opinion
subject to the whims of public opinion and election cycles but doesn’t usually
and election cycles but doesn’t usually
and election cycles but doesn’t usually require you to bury someone under them
require you to bury someone under them
require you to bury someone under them 40 to 50 years ago astronomers had built
40 to 50 years ago astronomers had built
40 to 50 years ago astronomers had built telescopes that span the entire spectrum
telescopes that span the entire spectrum
telescopes that span the entire spectrum of electromagnetic radiation from x-rays
of electromagnetic radiation from x-rays
of electromagnetic radiation from x-rays the visible light infrared to radio
the visible light infrared to radio
the visible light infrared to radio waves and they were making some great
waves and they were making some great
waves and they were making some great discoveries but they were also finding
discoveries but they were also finding
discoveries but they were also finding out that most of the matter in the
out that most of the matter in the
out that most of the matter in the universe would never actually be visible
universe would never actually be visible
universe would never actually be visible in these telescopes the long theorized
in these telescopes the long theorized
in these telescopes the long theorized black holes appeared to actually exist
black holes appeared to actually exist
black holes appeared to actually exist the end state for very massive stars
the end state for very massive stars
the end state for very massive stars these undergo a gravitational collapse
these undergo a gravitational collapse
these undergo a gravitational collapse so extreme that even light itself can
so extreme that even light itself can
so extreme that even light itself can never ever escape hence the name they
never ever escape hence the name they
never ever escape hence the name they were also finding out that at the center
were also finding out that at the center
were also finding out that at the center of most galaxies there is evidence that
of most galaxies there is evidence that
of most galaxies there is evidence that there was a very massive black hole with
there was a very massive black hole with
there was a very massive black hole with the mass of a million suns even more
the mass of a million suns even more
the mass of a million suns even more disturbing ly they were finding that
disturbing ly they were finding that
disturbing ly they were finding that most of the matter in the universe
most of the matter in the universe
most of the matter in the universe appeared to not be made up of atoms that
appeared to not be made up of atoms that
appeared to not be made up of atoms that make up stars and us and said this dark
make up stars and us and said this dark
make up stars and us and said this dark matter could only be found in directly
matter could only be found in directly
matter could only be found in directly by its gravitational pull on the stars
by its gravitational pull on the stars
by its gravitational pull on the stars that could be seen but there was a
that could be seen but there was a
that could be seen but there was a possibility Einstein had predicted that
possibility Einstein had predicted that
possibility Einstein had predicted that there was gravitational radiation if
there was gravitational radiation if
there was gravitational radiation if very massive objects accelerate such as
very massive objects accelerate such as
very massive objects accelerate such as a pair of black holes orbiting each
a pair of black holes orbiting each
a pair of black holes orbiting each other tightly they will lose energy and
other tightly they will lose energy and
other tightly they will lose energy and gravitational waves they will propagate
gravitational waves they will propagate
gravitational waves they will propagate away as ripples in the fabric of
away as ripples in the fabric of
away as ripples in the fabric of space-time at the speed of light as
space-time at the speed of light as
space-time at the speed of light as these propagate through space they
these propagate through space they
these propagate through space they squeeze it in one dimension while
squeeze it in one dimension while
squeeze it in one dimension while stretching it in the other but even the
stretching it in the other but even the
stretching it in the other but even the most powerful sources of gravitational
most powerful sources of gravitational
most powerful sources of gravitational radiation and waves would only leave the
radiation and waves would only leave the
radiation and waves would only leave the faintest ripple when they got to the
faintest ripple when they got to the
faintest ripple when they got to the earth these ripples would be so small
earth these ripples would be so small
earth these ripples would be so small that it would be only one ten thousands
that it would be only one ten thousands
that it would be only one ten thousands the diameter of a proton over a couple
the diameter of a proton over a couple
the diameter of a proton over a couple of kilometers how would you ever detect
of kilometers how would you ever detect
of kilometers how would you ever detect that Ray Weiss and others at MIT had an
that Ray Weiss and others at MIT had an
that Ray Weiss and others at MIT had an idea their new instrument the laser
idea their new instrument the laser
idea their new instrument the laser interferometer could do the trick ray
interferometer could do the trick ray
interferometer could do the trick ray spent the entire summer doing all these
spent the entire summer doing all these
spent the entire summer doing all these calculations figuring out how you would
calculations figuring out how you would
calculations figuring out how you would do it what the credit technologies were
do it what the credit technologies were
do it what the credit technologies were that was after assigning as a problem
that was after assigning as a problem
that was after assigning as a problem set for his students um he found that
set for his students um he found that
set for his students um he found that you would need a very large instrument
you would need a very large instrument
you would need a very large instrument with arms several kilometers long in an
with arms several kilometers long in an
with arms several kilometers long in an L shape and you would need the largest
L shape and you would need the largest
L shape and you would need the largest vacuum system ever built funding for
vacuum system ever built funding for
vacuum system ever built funding for this crazy idea was was difficult
this crazy idea was was difficult
this crazy idea was was difficult first the administration’s national
first the administration’s national
first the administration’s national science foundation– were very intrigued
science foundation– were very intrigued
science foundation– were very intrigued but only started things out with modest
but only started things out with modest
but only started things out with modest grants they needed to prove that the
grants they needed to prove that the
grants they needed to prove that the critical technologies for this would
critical technologies for this would
critical technologies for this would actually work they also brought in an
actually work they also brought in an
actually work they also brought in an industrialist to work with these desktop
industrialist to work with these desktop
industrialist to work with these desktop scientists to scale up their efforts to
scientists to scale up their efforts to
scientists to scale up their efforts to build such large facilities by the late
build such large facilities by the late
build such large facilities by the late 1980s plans for these laser and farmers
1980s plans for these laser and farmers
1980s plans for these laser and farmers looking very serious all the critical
looking very serious all the critical
looking very serious all the critical technologies had been proven but the
technologies had been proven but the
technologies had been proven but the budget to build these facilities was a
budget to build these facilities was a
budget to build these facilities was a hundred million dollars this dwarf the
hundred million dollars this dwarf the
hundred million dollars this dwarf the existing budget for astronomy how was
existing budget for astronomy how was
existing budget for astronomy how was this ever going to happen some luck
this ever going to happen some luck
this ever going to happen some luck helped the two sites selected down
helped the two sites selected down
helped the two sites selected down selected from lista candidates ended up
selected from lista candidates ended up
selected from lista candidates ended up in the districts of some key congressmen
in the districts of some key congressmen
in the districts of some key congressmen and Senators who became very strong
and Senators who became very strong
and Senators who became very strong advocates for this proposed laser
advocates for this proposed laser
advocates for this proposed laser interferometer gravitational-wave
interferometer gravitational-wave
interferometer gravitational-wave observatory ligo for short they pay
observatory ligo for short they pay
observatory ligo for short they pay passed laws creating a very special pot
passed laws creating a very special pot
passed laws creating a very special pot of money for such major projects the
of money for such major projects the
of money for such major projects the initial funding was finally secured but
initial funding was finally secured but
initial funding was finally secured but this was a tough time for large science
this was a tough time for large science
this was a tough time for large science projects many of them were having their
projects many of them were having their
projects many of them were having their budget slashed the superconducting
budget slashed the superconducting
budget slashed the superconducting supercollider in Texas was even
supercollider in Texas was even
supercollider in Texas was even cancelled the nascent ygo project got
cancelled the nascent ygo project got
cancelled the nascent ygo project got some benefit from this they got several
some benefit from this they got several
some benefit from this they got several managers experienced in large science
managers experienced in large science
managers experienced in large science projects they also got a lot of surplus
projects they also got a lot of surplus
projects they also got a lot of surplus furniture now any of these projects have
furniture now any of these projects have
furniture now any of these projects have to be arranged in stages at each stage
to be arranged in stages at each stage
to be arranged in stages at each stage you have to prove that you can meet the
you have to prove that you can meet the
you have to prove that you can meet the goals for that stage and complete them
goals for that stage and complete them
goals for that stage and complete them this builds confidence in the backers
this builds confidence in the backers
this builds confidence in the backers and in the researchers that this will
and in the researchers that this will
and in the researchers that this will ever occur the first goal for the legal
ever occur the first goal for the legal
ever occur the first goal for the legal observatory is the head to construct and
observatory is the head to construct and
observatory is the head to construct and operate a small network of
operate a small network of
operate a small network of interferometers around the clock for two
interferometers around the clock for two
interferometers around the clock for two years collect all the data and analyze
years collect all the data and analyze
years collect all the data and analyze it and they did that
it and they did that
it and they did that and they also managed to prove that the
and they also managed to prove that the
and they also managed to prove that the performance of their instrument was met
performance of their instrument was met
performance of their instrument was met the goals that have been boldly
the goals that have been boldly
the goals that have been boldly predicted over 10 years before why go
predicted over 10 years before why go
predicted over 10 years before why go also engaged the public they created the
also engaged the public they created the
also engaged the public they created the Einstein at home project when led a
Einstein at home project when led a
Einstein at home project when led a hundreds of thousands of ordinary people
hundreds of thousands of ordinary people
hundreds of thousands of ordinary people use the idle time and their computers to
use the idle time and their computers to
use the idle time and their computers to search for waves from wobbly pulsars it
search for waves from wobbly pulsars it
search for waves from wobbly pulsars it also had a neat screensaver but this
also had a neat screensaver but this
also had a neat screensaver but this effort let ordinary citizens of the
effort let ordinary citizens of the
effort let ordinary citizens of the public experience the joy and excitement
public experience the joy and excitement
public experience the joy and excitement of searching for things that had never
of searching for things that had never
of searching for things that had never ever been seen in all that time though
ever been seen in all that time though
ever been seen in all that time though LIGO wasn’t that lucky there were no
LIGO wasn’t that lucky there were no
LIGO wasn’t that lucky there were no surprise discoveries of gravitational
surprise discoveries of gravitational
surprise discoveries of gravitational waves from sources that were much closer
waves from sources that were much closer
waves from sources that were much closer than the astronomers expected but they
than the astronomers expected but they
than the astronomers expected but they did secure funding for the next stage
did secure funding for the next stage
did secure funding for the next stage advanced LIGO here they took out all the
advanced LIGO here they took out all the
advanced LIGO here they took out all the innards the and replaced the lasers the
innards the and replaced the lasers the
innards the and replaced the lasers the optics the seismic isolation systems
optics the seismic isolation systems
optics the seismic isolation systems with apparatus that could actually meet
with apparatus that could actually meet
with apparatus that could actually meet the performance to find the even weaker
the performance to find the even weaker
the performance to find the even weaker gravitational waves that were actually
gravitational waves that were actually
gravitational waves that were actually expected in the initial initial part of
expected in the initial initial part of
expected in the initial initial part of LIGO the mirrors were simply hung from
LIGO the mirrors were simply hung from
LIGO the mirrors were simply hung from two wires in advanced LIGO there were
two wires in advanced LIGO there were
two wires in advanced LIGO there were four separate suspensions of these
four separate suspensions of these
four separate suspensions of these mirrors the final one I’m very fragile
mirrors the final one I’m very fragile
mirrors the final one I’m very fragile but very strong silica glass fibers this
but very strong silica glass fibers this
but very strong silica glass fibers this was all to isolate these mirrors from
was all to isolate these mirrors from
was all to isolate these mirrors from all external vibrations the vibrations
all external vibrations the vibrations
all external vibrations the vibrations from the ripples of gravitational waves
from the ripples of gravitational waves
from the ripples of gravitational waves passing through them in a sense they
passing through them in a sense they
passing through them in a sense they were building the quietest rooms ever to
were building the quietest rooms ever to
were building the quietest rooms ever to hear the smallest pin drop imaginable by
hear the smallest pin drop imaginable by
hear the smallest pin drop imaginable by 2015 they had gotten all these parts
2015 they had gotten all these parts
2015 they had gotten all these parts assembled and new interferometers got
assembled and new interferometers got
assembled and new interferometers got them all working stabili
them all working stabili
them all working stabili and then what came it again because just
and then what came it again because just
and then what came it again because just as they’re starting their search in
as they’re starting their search in
as they’re starting their search in earnest for gravitational waves they got
earnest for gravitational waves they got
earnest for gravitational waves they got the surprise of their lifetimes a big
the surprise of their lifetimes a big
the surprise of their lifetimes a big signal in both observatories it was
signal in both observatories it was
signal in both observatories it was almost too good they had all expected
almost too good they had all expected
almost too good they had all expected that it will be a very subtle signal
that it will be a very subtle signal
that it will be a very subtle signal that would take weeks and weeks the
that would take weeks and weeks the
that would take weeks and weeks the computer processing to find but this one
computer processing to find but this one
computer processing to find but this one was so large you could actually see it
was so large you could actually see it
was so large you could actually see it in the date in itself now when they went
in the date in itself now when they went
in the date in itself now when they went in there yourself no one they analyzed
in there yourself no one they analyzed
in there yourself no one they analyzed it they found it was from a pair of
it they found it was from a pair of
it they found it was from a pair of black holes these black holes were
black holes these black holes were
black holes these black holes were through each 30 times the mass of the
through each 30 times the mass of the
through each 30 times the mass of the Sun 1.3 billion years ago they had
Sun 1.3 billion years ago they had
Sun 1.3 billion years ago they had merged violently so violently that three
merged violently so violently that three
merged violently so violently that three sons worth of mass were converted
sons worth of mass were converted
sons worth of mass were converted immediately into just into gravitational
immediately into just into gravitational
immediately into just into gravitational waves no light at all truly amazing but
waves no light at all truly amazing but
waves no light at all truly amazing but was very frustrating the scientist was
was very frustrating the scientist was
was very frustrating the scientist was they couldn’t tell anyone why because
they couldn’t tell anyone why because
they couldn’t tell anyone why because they had to absolutely make sure there
they had to absolutely make sure there
they had to absolutely make sure there was no other cause that there was no
was no other cause that there was no
was no other cause that there was no other little signal or little problem
other little signal or little problem
other little signal or little problem with the apparatus you have to remember
with the apparatus you have to remember
with the apparatus you have to remember they are trying to convince everyone
they are trying to convince everyone
they are trying to convince everyone that they had seen something
that they had seen something
that they had seen something gravitational waves no one else had ever
gravitational waves no one else had ever
gravitational waves no one else had ever seen from a pair of massive black holes
seen from a pair of massive black holes
seen from a pair of massive black holes that no other telescope could ever see
that no other telescope could ever see
that no other telescope could ever see that had to be really really sure and
that had to be really really sure and
that had to be really really sure and they were and finally announced it now
they were and finally announced it now
they were and finally announced it now during that observing they actually saw
during that observing they actually saw
during that observing they actually saw a couple more such binary black holes
a couple more such binary black holes
a couple more such binary black holes they greatly include the set that were
they greatly include the set that were
they greatly include the set that were known at all and these were much more
known at all and these were much more
known at all and these were much more massive than urban found before this
massive than urban found before this
massive than urban found before this discovery may also answer that dark
discovery may also answer that dark
discovery may also answer that dark matter I talked about before for over 20
matter I talked about before for over 20
matter I talked about before for over 20 years physicists have been searching for
years physicists have been searching for
years physicists have been searching for some exotic particle that makes up this
some exotic particle that makes up this
some exotic particle that makes up this dark matter but they found nothing but
dark matter but they found nothing but
dark matter but they found nothing but now some theorize that the start
now some theorize that the start
now some theorize that the start matter is actually may be unseen black
matter is actually may be unseen black
matter is actually may be unseen black holes created at the Big Bang we will
holes created at the Big Bang we will
holes created at the Big Bang we will see we hope for some great discoveries
see we hope for some great discoveries
see we hope for some great discoveries now because gravitational waves go
now because gravitational waves go
now because gravitational waves go through everything the part of the
through everything the part of the
through everything the part of the fabric of space-time you can’t focus
fabric of space-time you can’t focus
fabric of space-time you can’t focus them like you can lighten a telescope
them like you can lighten a telescope
them like you can lighten a telescope you can only use timing just like your
you can only use timing just like your
you can only use timing just like your ears to figure out where they’re coming
ears to figure out where they’re coming
ears to figure out where they’re coming from out there so you need a network
from out there so you need a network
from out there so you need a network luckily the network is growing bigger
luckily the network is growing bigger
luckily the network is growing bigger this year an interferometer in Italy
this year an interferometer in Italy
this year an interferometer in Italy will be joining the system the Japanese
will be joining the system the Japanese
will be joining the system the Japanese are building one inside a mountain to
are building one inside a mountain to
are building one inside a mountain to better shield it from vibrations within
better shield it from vibrations within
better shield it from vibrations within the next decade we expect another Lego
the next decade we expect another Lego
the next decade we expect another Lego instrument to be built in India we don’t
instrument to be built in India we don’t
instrument to be built in India we don’t know what great discoveries where do you
know what great discoveries where do you
know what great discoveries where do you get with the system this is not the only
get with the system this is not the only
get with the system this is not the only long-term effort in the field the Lisa
long-term effort in the field the Lisa
long-term effort in the field the Lisa project proposes to build a laser
project proposes to build a laser
project proposes to build a laser interferometer in space this
interferometer in space this
interferometer in space this interferometer would actually be
interferometer would actually be
interferometer would actually be sensitive to gravitational waves from
sensitive to gravitational waves from
sensitive to gravitational waves from sources much fainter but much closer to
sources much fainter but much closer to
sources much fainter but much closer to us some in our own galaxy so we even
us some in our own galaxy so we even
us some in our own galaxy so we even know about already on this past March
know about already on this past March
know about already on this past March then launched a satellite out beyond the
then launched a satellite out beyond the
then launched a satellite out beyond the earth that proved some of the critical
earth that proved some of the critical
earth that proved some of the critical technologies they need to build this
technologies they need to build this
technologies they need to build this interferometer haven’t been active for
interferometer haven’t been active for
interferometer haven’t been active for already 20 years and it’s probably going
already 20 years and it’s probably going
already 20 years and it’s probably going to take another 10 20 years more and
to take another 10 20 years more and
to take another 10 20 years more and with satellites that will be a mere 1
with satellites that will be a mere 1
with satellites that will be a mere 1 million kilometers apart there are very
million kilometers apart there are very
million kilometers apart there are very long game indeed thank you
long game indeed thank you
long game indeed thank you [Applause]
[Applause]
[Applause] you
you
you [Music]
”
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