Extreme Dinosaurs | National Geographic

I got this job at the University of

I got this job at the University of Chicago as a young guy that barely shave

Chicago as a young guy that barely shave

Chicago as a young guy that barely shave and I felt for the big tent

and I felt for the big tent

and I felt for the big tent I give him try me I had no experience in

I give him try me I had no experience in

I give him try me I had no experience in finding anything I didn’t know I’d be

finding anything I didn’t know I’d be

finding anything I didn’t know I’d be good at it

these are cervical and that’s part of

these are cervical and that’s part of the fun and excitement about science you

the fun and excitement about science you

the fun and excitement about science you never know where it’s going to take you

Here I am now having uncovered the man

Here I am now having uncovered the man approaching a hundred tons of the

approaching a hundred tons of the

approaching a hundred tons of the charile in Africa last year and worked

charile in Africa last year and worked

charile in Africa last year and worked in India we’ve worked in Asia we’ve

in India we’ve worked in Asia we’ve

in India we’ve worked in Asia we’ve worked in South America we’ve discovered

worked in South America we’ve discovered

worked in South America we’ve discovered dinosaurs right and left flying reptiles

dinosaurs right and left flying reptiles

dinosaurs right and left flying reptiles crocodiles 40 feet long who could have

crocodiles 40 feet long who could have

crocodiles 40 feet long who could have predicted that nobody can and that’s

predicted that nobody can and that’s

predicted that nobody can and that’s what’s the excitement of really of what

what’s the excitement of really of what

what’s the excitement of really of what research science is about thank you sir

research science is about thank you sir

research science is about thank you sir okay I’m delighted to be here tonight it

okay I’m delighted to be here tonight it

okay I’m delighted to be here tonight it was a big family six kids over eight

was a big family six kids over eight

was a big family six kids over eight years and one of them we’ve all become

years and one of them we’ve all become

years and one of them we’ve all become professors that wasn’t the plan one of

professors that wasn’t the plan one of

professors that wasn’t the plan one of them a Paul Calista Sereno was a bit of

them a Paul Calista Sereno was a bit of

them a Paul Calista Sereno was a bit of a black sheep for quite a while I had

a black sheep for quite a while I had

a black sheep for quite a while I had brilliant siblings but when the teachers

brilliant siblings but when the teachers

brilliant siblings but when the teachers got me oh my gosh they never forgot and

got me oh my gosh they never forgot and

got me oh my gosh they never forgot and I had quite a rough up being in terms of

I had quite a rough up being in terms of

I had quite a rough up being in terms of just really liking school didn’t like it

just really liking school didn’t like it

just really liking school didn’t like it never operated well in school I was also

never operated well in school I was also

never operated well in school I was also a bit of an accident-prone kid so that

a bit of an accident-prone kid so that

a bit of an accident-prone kid so that by sixth grade I think I was unconscious

by sixth grade I think I was unconscious

by sixth grade I think I was unconscious at least 20 times I was nearly killed by

at least 20 times I was nearly killed by

at least 20 times I was nearly killed by one gym teacher who held me vertically

one gym teacher who held me vertically

one gym teacher who held me vertically in a move that caused me to swallow my

in a move that caused me to swallow my

in a move that caused me to swallow my tongue I was knocked unconscious with a

tongue I was knocked unconscious with a

tongue I was knocked unconscious with a volleyball by the other gym teacher whom

volleyball by the other gym teacher whom

volleyball by the other gym teacher whom I would later work with in summers when

I would later work with in summers when

I would later work with in summers when I became a college student I learned how

I became a college student I learned how

I became a college student I learned how to feint in church as a way of getting

to feint in church as a way of getting

to feint in church as a way of getting out of church

out of church

out of church I tried to derail a train it wasn’t

I tried to derail a train it wasn’t

I tried to derail a train it wasn’t successful and it was generally I had

successful and it was generally I had

successful and it was generally I had this kind of a feeling about school I

this kind of a feeling about school I

this kind of a feeling about school I remember distinctly in sixth grade

remember distinctly in sixth grade

remember distinctly in sixth grade thinking I’ve only gone through six

thinking I’ve only gone through six

thinking I’ve only gone through six years and if I can calculate correctly

years and if I can calculate correctly

years and if I can calculate correctly six minus minus twelve at six six more

six minus minus twelve at six six more

six minus minus twelve at six six more years I’m not going to make it out of

years I’m not going to make it out of

years I’m not going to make it out of high school a lot of people didn’t think

high school a lot of people didn’t think

high school a lot of people didn’t think I would make it out of high school and

I would make it out of high school and

I would make it out of high school and there are lots of kids like me and see

there are lots of kids like me and see

there are lots of kids like me and see them all the time

them all the time

them all the time I ended up really learning about science

I ended up really learning about science

I ended up really learning about science and getting a love for biology and

and getting a love for biology and

and getting a love for biology and actually a feel for adventure and all

actually a feel for adventure and all

actually a feel for adventure and all the things I was doing outside of the

the things I was doing outside of the

the things I was doing outside of the classroom some of them good some of them

classroom some of them good some of them

classroom some of them good some of them bad one of the good things I did was my

bad one of the good things I did was my

bad one of the good things I did was my my father bought me a butterfly

my father bought me a butterfly

my father bought me a butterfly collecting clit I was afraid to admit

collecting clit I was afraid to admit

collecting clit I was afraid to admit that in school but I went around and

that in school but I went around and

that in school but I went around and with my brother later collected these

with my brother later collected these

with my brother later collected these butterflies outside our fancy suburb of

butterflies outside our fancy suburb of

butterflies outside our fancy suburb of Naperville wasn’t so fancy event outside

Naperville wasn’t so fancy event outside

Naperville wasn’t so fancy event outside Chicago and that was my first taste of

Chicago and that was my first taste of

Chicago and that was my first taste of biology but this was a real big event

biology but this was a real big event

biology but this was a real big event for me this painting my first on a piece

for me this painting my first on a piece

for me this painting my first on a piece of canvas my mother was an art teacher

of canvas my mother was an art teacher

of canvas my mother was an art teacher my father a postman ex engineer they

my father a postman ex engineer they

my father a postman ex engineer they just told us to do things something

just told us to do things something

just told us to do things something satisfying in life make no small plans

satisfying in life make no small plans

satisfying in life make no small plans well I didn’t really come to fruition

well I didn’t really come to fruition

well I didn’t really come to fruition for me until I made this painting and

for me until I made this painting and

for me until I made this painting and then I felt for the first time that I

then I felt for the first time that I

then I felt for the first time that I could do something now those pots were

could do something now those pots were

could do something now those pots were made by my brother and I felt I had a

made by my brother and I felt I had a

made by my brother and I felt I had a career I was going to be an artist so I

career I was going to be an artist so I

career I was going to be an artist so I got a dictionary and I actually read the

got a dictionary and I actually read the

got a dictionary and I actually read the dictionary because I was so far behind

dictionary because I was so far behind

dictionary because I was so far behind in vocabulary that it was a question

in vocabulary that it was a question

in vocabulary that it was a question whether I would get into college I

whether I would get into college I

whether I would get into college I worked my way into northern Illinois

worked my way into northern Illinois

worked my way into northern Illinois University as an art student and these

University as an art student and these

University as an art student and these were drawings I did in life drawing

were drawings I did in life drawing

were drawings I did in life drawing class screw there was some talent there

class screw there was some talent there

class screw there was some talent there but there’s something else going on

but there’s something else going on

but there’s something else going on subliminal e even before I thought about

subliminal e even before I thought about

subliminal e even before I thought about paleontology I was seeing bones when I

paleontology I was seeing bones when I

paleontology I was seeing bones when I shouldn’t be this was actually a living

shouldn’t be this was actually a living

shouldn’t be this was actually a living person and actually it turns out that

person and actually it turns out that

person and actually it turns out that the line between science and art is a

the line between science and art is a

the line between science and art is a fuzzy one and a very short one indeed to

fuzzy one and a very short one indeed to

fuzzy one and a very short one indeed to this day I have people telling me that

this day I have people telling me that

this day I have people telling me that the art in what I do is in making up the

the art in what I do is in making up the

the art in what I do is in making up the parts or don’t exist

parts or don’t exist

parts or don’t exist the imagination is only limited to what

the imagination is only limited to what

the imagination is only limited to what doesn’t exist and I think that’s a very

doesn’t exist and I think that’s a very

doesn’t exist and I think that’s a very limiting view of what art actually has

limiting view of what art actually has

limiting view of what art actually has to offer a scientist like myself I think

to offer a scientist like myself I think

to offer a scientist like myself I think it comes into play in every aspect of

it comes into play in every aspect of

it comes into play in every aspect of what we do I think it’s why I can find

what we do I think it’s why I can find

what we do I think it’s why I can find things in the field because I can take

things in the field because I can take

things in the field because I can take the anatomy of bones that well when I

the anatomy of bones that well when I

the anatomy of bones that well when I see only a part of it I can think about

see only a part of it I can think about

see only a part of it I can think about the other part that’s in the ground a

the other part that’s in the ground a

the other part that’s in the ground a specimens of nature source but here’s

specimens of nature source but here’s

specimens of nature source but here’s the transition from the neck to the back

the transition from the neck to the back

the transition from the neck to the back we may not have that in any other

we may not have that in any other

we may not have that in any other specimen there’s anything we need to do

specimen there’s anything we need to do

specimen there’s anything we need to do in science it’s to think about ideas

in science it’s to think about ideas

in science it’s to think about ideas that haven’t been thought about before

that haven’t been thought about before

that haven’t been thought about before think about hypotheses that maybe you

think about hypotheses that maybe you

think about hypotheses that maybe you don’t have a lot of evidence for but

don’t have a lot of evidence for but

don’t have a lot of evidence for but then you can go out and test and what I

then you can go out and test and what I

then you can go out and test and what I spend the last twenty five years doing

spend the last twenty five years doing

spend the last twenty five years doing is trying to do that with dinosaur bones

is trying to do that with dinosaur bones

is trying to do that with dinosaur bones what I try to do is understand the

what I try to do is understand the

what I try to do is understand the distortion and use your source I realize

distortion and use your source I realize

distortion and use your source I realize the distortion is your assurance might

the distortion is your assurance might

the distortion is your assurance might link it to another dinosaur and try to

link it to another dinosaur and try to

link it to another dinosaur and try to understand what those distortions mean

understand what those distortions mean

understand what those distortions mean we’re going to go back on a time time

we’re going to go back on a time time

we’re going to go back on a time time trip back to the Mesozoic a story I

trip back to the Mesozoic a story I

trip back to the Mesozoic a story I tells the Mesozoic story this is a

tells the Mesozoic story this is a

tells the Mesozoic story this is a picture of the continents floating

picture of the continents floating

picture of the continents floating around a little bit after when the

around a little bit after when the

around a little bit after when the chapter I’m going to talk about today

chapter I’m going to talk about today

chapter I’m going to talk about today but it’s about 80 million years ago you

but it’s about 80 million years ago you

but it’s about 80 million years ago you see how small the Atlantic Ocean is well

see how small the Atlantic Ocean is well

see how small the Atlantic Ocean is well it got smaller as you go back in time it

it got smaller as you go back in time it

it got smaller as you go back in time it gets so small that Africa touches South

gets so small that Africa touches South

gets so small that Africa touches South America and just at that point when

America and just at that point when

America and just at that point when there was still some contact that’s when

there was still some contact that’s when

there was still some contact that’s when we’re going to go into Africa and see

we’re going to go into Africa and see

we’re going to go into Africa and see what was alive hundred and ten million

what was alive hundred and ten million

what was alive hundred and ten million years ago Africa of course now has a

years ago Africa of course now has a

years ago Africa of course now has a large desert in the North here there’s

large desert in the North here there’s

large desert in the North here there’s no roads that actually cross it and the

no roads that actually cross it and the

no roads that actually cross it and the country where my colleagues come from is

country where my colleagues come from is

country where my colleagues come from is blessed measure it’s located about here

blessed measure it’s located about here

blessed measure it’s located about here is blessed and I say blessed with a

is blessed and I say blessed with a

is blessed and I say blessed with a section of that desert it’s a gorgeous

section of that desert it’s a gorgeous

section of that desert it’s a gorgeous place to visit I always wanted to cross

place to visit I always wanted to cross

place to visit I always wanted to cross it just like I wanted to go down the

it just like I wanted to go down the

it just like I wanted to go down the Mississippi River as a kid I said I

Mississippi River as a kid I said I

Mississippi River as a kid I said I can’t live a full life unless I’ve

can’t live a full life unless I’ve

can’t live a full life unless I’ve crossed the Sahara once it is such a

crossed the Sahara once it is such a

crossed the Sahara once it is such a magnificent enormous habitat you can be

magnificent enormous habitat you can be

magnificent enormous habitat you can be in a place and look all around you for

in a place and look all around you for

in a place and look all around you for miles and miles and see sand and rock

miles and miles and see sand and rock

miles and miles and see sand and rock and in fact in some places you can see

and in fact in some places you can see

and in fact in some places you can see more dinosaur bone than anywhere else on

more dinosaur bone than anywhere else on

more dinosaur bone than anywhere else on the continent that’s the place I’m going

the continent that’s the place I’m going

the continent that’s the place I’m going to take you now it’s called gateau fowl

to take you now it’s called gateau fowl

to take you now it’s called gateau fowl the place where camels fear to tread

the place where camels fear to tread

the place where camels fear to tread and humans must fear to tread there more

and humans must fear to tread there more

and humans must fear to tread there more if camels don’t like the place you can’t

if camels don’t like the place you can’t

if camels don’t like the place you can’t take your normal thermometer that only

take your normal thermometer that only

take your normal thermometer that only goes up to 120 otherwise you’ll never

goes up to 120 otherwise you’ll never

goes up to 120 otherwise you’ll never know how hot it is and you need to think

know how hot it is and you need to think

know how hot it is and you need to think about other things like dehydrated food

about other things like dehydrated food

about other things like dehydrated food you’re going to take a big group of say

you’re going to take a big group of say

you’re going to take a big group of say 20 people and they’re going to be

20 people and they’re going to be

20 people and they’re going to be working as hard as they’ve ever worked

working as hard as they’ve ever worked

working as hard as they’ve ever worked in their life digging up 10 20 tons of

in their life digging up 10 20 tons of

in their life digging up 10 20 tons of rock and bone you got to feed them so

rock and bone you got to feed them so

rock and bone you got to feed them so you got to think of a lot of things you

you got to think of a lot of things you

you got to think of a lot of things you got to put it all in a car you can’t

got to put it all in a car you can’t

got to put it all in a car you can’t take anything that’s not absolutely

take anything that’s not absolutely

take anything that’s not absolutely necessary and everything that is except

necessary and everything that is except

necessary and everything that is except water that you’ve got to find and

water that you’ve got to find and

water that you’ve got to find and transport which is the major problem in

transport which is the major problem in

transport which is the major problem in and of itself and then you go driving

and of itself and then you go driving

and of itself and then you go driving into the desert this is actually one

into the desert this is actually one

into the desert this is actually one time which we actually drove all the way

time which we actually drove all the way

time which we actually drove all the way down we’ve done it twice drove all the

down we’ve done it twice drove all the

down we’ve done it twice drove all the way down to me share from Europe and

way down to me share from Europe and

way down to me share from Europe and drove back

drove back

drove back this is Algeria it’s a land inhabited by

this is Algeria it’s a land inhabited by

this is Algeria it’s a land inhabited by a very interesting nomadic people the

a very interesting nomadic people the

a very interesting nomadic people the Tuareg these people have lived for

Tuareg these people have lived for

Tuareg these people have lived for hundreds in fact thousands of years in

hundreds in fact thousands of years in

hundreds in fact thousands of years in the desert leading a nomadic life at

the desert leading a nomadic life at

the desert leading a nomadic life at first without camels and then later

first without camels and then later

first without camels and then later during historical periods with camels

during historical periods with camels

during historical periods with camels raising goats and and mutton and Trading

raising goats and and mutton and Trading

raising goats and and mutton and Trading camels and it’s an absolutely fantastic

camels and it’s an absolutely fantastic

camels and it’s an absolutely fantastic culture where the men wear veils and

culture where the men wear veils and

culture where the men wear veils and carry swords you go to their homeland

carry swords you go to their homeland

carry swords you go to their homeland the the biggest Oasis where Tuareg

the the biggest Oasis where Tuareg

the the biggest Oasis where Tuareg culture can be seen up close at Agadez

culture can be seen up close at Agadez

culture can be seen up close at Agadez you probably heard of the town located

you probably heard of the town located

you probably heard of the town located on the edge of a small and low mountain

on the edge of a small and low mountain

on the edge of a small and low mountain range called the eye ear and there you

range called the eye ear and there you

range called the eye ear and there you see the eye ear and there you see the

see the eye ear and there you see the

see the eye ear and there you see the Tenere Desert coming into the eye ear

Tenere Desert coming into the eye ear

Tenere Desert coming into the eye ear from the east side you follow those

from the east side you follow those

from the east side you follow those dunes and try to avoid them as you go

dunes and try to avoid them as you go

dunes and try to avoid them as you go east into the place called data foul and

east into the place called data foul and

east into the place called data foul and it looks like this if you’ve got good

it looks like this if you’ve got good

it looks like this if you’ve got good eyes you’ll see our camp look at that

eyes you’ll see our camp look at that

eyes you’ll see our camp look at that with GPS of course we can find our way

with GPS of course we can find our way

with GPS of course we can find our way in we can often find our way out

in we can often find our way out

in we can often find our way out we can find fossils that we found it

we can find fossils that we found it

we can find fossils that we found it makes planning a year’s expedition a

makes planning a year’s expedition a

makes planning a year’s expedition a great pleasure and something that’s much

great pleasure and something that’s much

great pleasure and something that’s much more possible to do because we can

more possible to do because we can

more possible to do because we can always find a fossil once you’ve left it

always find a fossil once you’ve left it

always find a fossil once you’ve left it a month later but this is the playground

a month later but this is the playground

a month later but this is the playground for where we have spent several years

for where we have spent several years

for where we have spent several years finding fossil there’s more fossils here

finding fossil there’s more fossils here

finding fossil there’s more fossils here in these little patches of rock than

in these little patches of rock than

in these little patches of rock than anywhere else in Africa it’s going to

anywhere else in Africa it’s going to

anywhere else in Africa it’s going to give us and it’s going to give all of

give us and it’s going to give all of

give us and it’s going to give all of Africa an incredible picture of fossils

Africa an incredible picture of fossils

Africa an incredible picture of fossils 110 million years ago difficult places

110 million years ago difficult places

110 million years ago difficult places you can move up in time 290 Mon you go

you can move up in time 290 Mon you go

you can move up in time 290 Mon you go other places you can move back in time

other places you can move back in time

other places you can move back in time to 135 million years that’s why before

to 135 million years that’s why before

to 135 million years that’s why before we leave me share we have to leave it

we leave me share we have to leave it

we leave me share we have to leave it with the world’s best dinosaur museum

with the world’s best dinosaur museum

with the world’s best dinosaur museum which we intend to do in the next years

which we intend to do in the next years

which we intend to do in the next years now I’m just getting you know this is

now I’m just getting you know this is

now I’m just getting you know this is way out of date now because we’ve number

way out of date now because we’ve number

way out of date now because we’ve number added a number of species to this

added a number of species to this

added a number of species to this picture but going back to that map that

picture but going back to that map that

picture but going back to that map that I showed you in the Mesozoic world

I showed you in the Mesozoic world

I showed you in the Mesozoic world especially in the latter part of the

especially in the latter part of the

especially in the latter part of the Mesozoic world those continents have

Mesozoic world those continents have

Mesozoic world those continents have drifted apart it doesn’t take long five

drifted apart it doesn’t take long five

drifted apart it doesn’t take long five to ten million years before species in

to ten million years before species in

to ten million years before species in isolation will diverge on their own path

isolation will diverge on their own path

isolation will diverge on their own path evolution is a creative process that

evolution is a creative process that

evolution is a creative process that ultimately takes advantage of

ultimately takes advantage of

ultimately takes advantage of opportunities so varied that we can’t

opportunities so varied that we can’t

opportunities so varied that we can’t predict its path over time it repeats

predict its path over time it repeats

predict its path over time it repeats itself in different ways and shapes but

itself in different ways and shapes but

itself in different ways and shapes but you can’t predict it if you take a

you can’t predict it if you take a

you can’t predict it if you take a continent send it on its own course

continent send it on its own course

continent send it on its own course somewhere new forms new species will

somewhere new forms new species will

somewhere new forms new species will evolve and so the world that I’m going

evolve and so the world that I’m going

evolve and so the world that I’m going to describe to you is extreme by our

to describe to you is extreme by our

to describe to you is extreme by our standards we don’t have anything to

standards we don’t have anything to

standards we don’t have anything to judge it by our standards being North

judge it by our standards being North

judge it by our standards being North American dinosaurs which you’ve known

American dinosaurs which you’ve known

American dinosaurs which you’ve known for more than a century the dinosaurs I

for more than a century the dinosaurs I

for more than a century the dinosaurs I grew up on the books it’s nothing like

grew up on the books it’s nothing like

grew up on the books it’s nothing like that and I’m going to tell you a little

that and I’m going to tell you a little

that and I’m going to tell you a little bit about it I’m going to tell you about

bit about it I’m going to tell you about

bit about it I’m going to tell you about this layer here in the middle 110

this layer here in the middle 110

this layer here in the middle 110 million years ago and some of these

million years ago and some of these

million years ago and some of these species here that we’ve named from that

species here that we’ve named from that

species here that we’ve named from that love that level you’ll walk into the

love that level you’ll walk into the

love that level you’ll walk into the desert you find a six-foot jaw but that

desert you find a six-foot jaw but that

desert you find a six-foot jaw but that jaw doesn’t the butt doesn’t belong to a

jaw doesn’t the butt doesn’t belong to a

jaw doesn’t the butt doesn’t belong to a dinosaur

dinosaur

dinosaur it belongs to an enormous crocodile here

it belongs to an enormous crocodile here

it belongs to an enormous crocodile here we are laying down behind the John a

we are laying down behind the John a

we are laying down behind the John a photograph that was published in

photograph that was published in

photograph that was published in National Geographic it took us a lot to

National Geographic it took us a lot to

National Geographic it took us a lot to later the ground was 150 degrees we were

later the ground was 150 degrees we were

later the ground was 150 degrees we were baking and they said just one more

baking and they said just one more

baking and they said just one more photograph this animal

photograph this animal

photograph this animal we found a lot of it was quite a story

we found a lot of it was quite a story

we found a lot of it was quite a story in terms of putting it together but we

in terms of putting it together but we

in terms of putting it together but we got most of this animal together we

got most of this animal together we

got most of this animal together we sized adjusted the parts it was to our

sized adjusted the parts it was to our

sized adjusted the parts it was to our mind the world’s largest crocodile in

mind the world’s largest crocodile in

mind the world’s largest crocodile in fact here it is with a modern crocodile

fact here it is with a modern crocodile

fact here it is with a modern crocodile jaw in its jaws truly how big it was

jaw in its jaws truly how big it was

jaw in its jaws truly how big it was however was something to really marvel

however was something to really marvel

however was something to really marvel at and marvel at indeed when you

at and marvel at indeed when you

at and marvel at indeed when you reconstruct it in three dimensions I

reconstruct it in three dimensions I

reconstruct it in three dimensions I contacted an artist we adjusted all the

contacted an artist we adjusted all the

contacted an artist we adjusted all the sizes I gave him a cast of the skull

sizes I gave him a cast of the skull

sizes I gave him a cast of the skull Akash’s the scoots and he needed two by

Akash’s the scoots and he needed two by

Akash’s the scoots and he needed two by two tons of putty he built something

two tons of putty he built something

two tons of putty he built something which looked like an airplane to which

which looked like an airplane to which

which looked like an airplane to which he covered with putty and he did a

he covered with putty and he did a

he covered with putty and he did a beautiful sculpting job I never thought

beautiful sculpting job I never thought

beautiful sculpting job I never thought it would take me to Costa Rica a fossil

it would take me to Costa Rica a fossil

it would take me to Costa Rica a fossil crocodile from was inherit taking me to

crocodile from was inherit taking me to

crocodile from was inherit taking me to Costa Rica and also to India measured

Costa Rica and also to India measured

Costa Rica and also to India measured aerials but it really has stood the test

aerials but it really has stood the test

aerials but it really has stood the test of time as as as the bona fide test of

of time as as as the bona fide test of

of time as as as the bona fide test of actual figuring out how big that the

actual figuring out how big that the

actual figuring out how big that the largest crocodile was let’s get the

largest crocodile was let’s get the

largest crocodile was let’s get the state measure on him Wow different crack

state measure on him Wow different crack

state measure on him Wow different crack was one of a couple of strange things

was one of a couple of strange things

was one of a couple of strange things that we found in the desert one of the

that we found in the desert one of the

that we found in the desert one of the other ones was found here look at that

other ones was found here look at that

other ones was found here look at that claw was sitting there I think

claw was sitting there I think

claw was sitting there I think no nomads even past this corner data

no nomads even past this corner data

no nomads even past this corner data file the way someone probably wouldn’t

file the way someone probably wouldn’t

file the way someone probably wouldn’t picked up that claws with me magnificent

picked up that claws with me magnificent

picked up that claws with me magnificent claw and what I saw when I came to the

claw and what I saw when I came to the

claw and what I saw when I came to the site was a fibula here it’s a little

site was a fibula here it’s a little

site was a fibula here it’s a little bone the leg that claw in general

bone the leg that claw in general

bone the leg that claw in general matched the fibula in other words I

matched the fibula in other words I

matched the fibula in other words I could use my hardest mine and I could

could use my hardest mine and I could

could use my hardest mine and I could use my anatomist mine to think that this

use my anatomist mine to think that this

use my anatomist mine to think that this really was matching that fibula belonged

really was matching that fibula belonged

really was matching that fibula belonged to a predatory dinosaur that’s that’s a

to a predatory dinosaur that’s that’s a

to a predatory dinosaur that’s that’s a indicating that there could be more in

indicating that there could be more in

indicating that there could be more in there and we dug in and some years later

there and we dug in and some years later

there and we dug in and some years later on this stage we put together for the

on this stage we put together for the

on this stage we put together for the first time the spinous are called suka –

first time the spinous are called suka –

first time the spinous are called suka – it was the first – or that was

it was the first – or that was

it was the first – or that was resurrected in three dimensions it’s a

resurrected in three dimensions it’s a

resurrected in three dimensions it’s a very strange kind of predator but the

very strange kind of predator but the

very strange kind of predator but the skull more than anything else took the

skull more than anything else took the

skull more than anything else took the cake no one had actually found enough of

cake no one had actually found enough of

cake no one had actually found enough of a Spinosaurus skull to realize that

a Spinosaurus skull to realize that

a Spinosaurus skull to realize that their skull was as it were just pulled

their skull was as it were just pulled

their skull was as it were just pulled out like putty it’s like you took a

out like putty it’s like you took a

out like putty it’s like you took a Tyrannosaurus skull shaved off the

Tyrannosaurus skull shaved off the

Tyrannosaurus skull shaved off the eyebrows and just pulled it out to a

eyebrows and just pulled it out to a

eyebrows and just pulled it out to a length that just is extreme

length that just is extreme

length that just is extreme no one had ever seen a predatory

no one had ever seen a predatory

no one had ever seen a predatory dinosaur that looked like that the most

dinosaur that looked like that the most

dinosaur that looked like that the most appropriate name crocodile mimic is

appropriate name crocodile mimic is

appropriate name crocodile mimic is trying to be a crocodile

trying to be a crocodile

trying to be a crocodile wrong it had a skull that looked like

wrong it had a skull that looked like

wrong it had a skull that looked like one almost a little bit narrower than

one almost a little bit narrower than

one almost a little bit narrower than most it had teeth that were for scenario

most it had teeth that were for scenario

most it had teeth that were for scenario and probably also eating other kinds of

and probably also eating other kinds of

and probably also eating other kinds of animals but none that it would take down

animals but none that it would take down

animals but none that it would take down with such a fragile skull for that it

with such a fragile skull for that it

with such a fragile skull for that it emphasized the four limbs four foot long

emphasized the four limbs four foot long

emphasized the four limbs four foot long four limbs with foot long claws that in

four limbs with foot long claws that in

four limbs with foot long claws that in life would have been about 16 inches it

life would have been about 16 inches it

life would have been about 16 inches it has been most powerful hands and four

has been most powerful hands and four

has been most powerful hands and four limbs of anything that ever walked on

limbs of anything that ever walked on

limbs of anything that ever walked on land on two legs closest thing maybe a a

land on two legs closest thing maybe a a

land on two legs closest thing maybe a a giant ground sloth this thing was

giant ground sloth this thing was

giant ground sloth this thing was monstrous and it probably used its for

monstrous and it probably used its for

monstrous and it probably used its for them to take down things that it

them to take down things that it

them to take down things that it couldn’t with its skull absolutely

couldn’t with its skull absolutely

couldn’t with its skull absolutely bizarre animal now one bizarre animal

bizarre animal now one bizarre animal

bizarre animal now one bizarre animal that we brought here on the display

that we brought here on the display

that we brought here on the display outside and so I want to talk about that

outside and so I want to talk about that

outside and so I want to talk about that one in particular a little bit more as

one in particular a little bit more as

one in particular a little bit more as this pterosaur we haven’t given a name

this pterosaur we haven’t given a name

this pterosaur we haven’t given a name to this territory yet we plan to name it

to this territory yet we plan to name it

to this territory yet we plan to name it when we publish at length on the

when we publish at length on the

when we publish at length on the scientific on the remains of the

scientific on the remains of the

scientific on the remains of the pterosaur but we we have reconstructed

pterosaur but we we have reconstructed

pterosaur but we we have reconstructed it here and what we found was one of its

it here and what we found was one of its

it here and what we found was one of its beautiful winged fingers and we also

beautiful winged fingers and we also

beautiful winged fingers and we also found parts of the skull and so I’d like

found parts of the skull and so I’d like

found parts of the skull and so I’d like to show you a little bit about what this

to show you a little bit about what this

to show you a little bit about what this pterosaur caused us to think about it

pterosaur caused us to think about it

pterosaur caused us to think about it has teeth clearly for snaring fish and

has teeth clearly for snaring fish and

has teeth clearly for snaring fish and yet how did that work could it have done

yet how did that work could it have done

yet how did that work could it have done it from the air if not we think we have

it from the air if not we think we have

it from the air if not we think we have a very clumsy animal you’re doing it

a very clumsy animal you’re doing it

a very clumsy animal you’re doing it from all fours it perplexes

from all fours it perplexes

from all fours it perplexes aerodynamicists because they think that

aerodynamicists because they think that

aerodynamicists because they think that it would have to stall at too slow of a

it would have to stall at too slow of a

it would have to stall at too slow of a speed for an animal that size to

speed for an animal that size to

speed for an animal that size to actually be covered without falling into

actually be covered without falling into

actually be covered without falling into the water yet we look at the animal look

the water yet we look at the animal look

the water yet we look at the animal look at its neck look at footprints and they

at its neck look at footprints and they

at its neck look at footprints and they say it’s clumsy four-legged and really

say it’s clumsy four-legged and really

say it’s clumsy four-legged and really couldn’t catch a thing with its jaw as

couldn’t catch a thing with its jaw as

couldn’t catch a thing with its jaw as if it was on the ground here’s another

if it was on the ground here’s another

if it was on the ground here’s another problem we found in 1997 it’s a creature

problem we found in 1997 it’s a creature

problem we found in 1997 it’s a creature you see outside underneath the pterosaur

you see outside underneath the pterosaur

you see outside underneath the pterosaur that I’m going to spend the rest of the

that I’m going to spend the rest of the

that I’m going to spend the rest of the time talking about an animal that will

time talking about an animal that will

time talking about an animal that will challenge biomechanics as to how it ate

challenge biomechanics as to how it ate

challenge biomechanics as to how it ate and fed that elephant-sized body for

and fed that elephant-sized body for

and fed that elephant-sized body for years to come it’s found by this team

years to come it’s found by this team

years to come it’s found by this team 1997 here we are taking a photograph a

1997 here we are taking a photograph a

1997 here we are taking a photograph a couple of minutes after finding the

couple of minutes after finding the

couple of minutes after finding the skull pulled apart with little

skull pulled apart with little

skull pulled apart with little at the surface there and fragile neck

at the surface there and fragile neck

at the surface there and fragile neck bones coming to the surface and being

bones coming to the surface and being

bones coming to the surface and being planed off actually by the desert wind

planed off actually by the desert wind

planed off actually by the desert wind the bones are so fragile that the sand

the bones are so fragile that the sand

the bones are so fragile that the sand and wind plane them off almost flat

and wind plane them off almost flat

and wind plane them off almost flat moment they come to the surface so this

moment they come to the surface so this

moment they come to the surface so this had seen several centuries of weathering

had seen several centuries of weathering

had seen several centuries of weathering before we found it now Jeff then a

before we found it now Jeff then a

before we found it now Jeff then a student now professor at University of

student now professor at University of

student now professor at University of Michigan and I butted our heads updating

Michigan and I butted our heads updating

Michigan and I butted our heads updating over the specimen to figure out what

over the specimen to figure out what

over the specimen to figure out what what it was it was originally thought to

what it was it was originally thought to

what it was it was originally thought to be maybe a predator it was so fragile

be maybe a predator it was so fragile

be maybe a predator it was so fragile but we quickly saw a stack of teeth and

but we quickly saw a stack of teeth and

but we quickly saw a stack of teeth and one of the jaw bones we both realized it

one of the jaw bones we both realized it

one of the jaw bones we both realized it was some kind of funky sauropod lighter

was some kind of funky sauropod lighter

was some kind of funky sauropod lighter than anything we’d ever seen before we

than anything we’d ever seen before we

than anything we’d ever seen before we had no idea what it looked like that

had no idea what it looked like that

had no idea what it looked like that point that would require a lot of

point that would require a lot of

point that would require a lot of digging this is a little closer up view

digging this is a little closer up view

digging this is a little closer up view of the rock to show you this is purple

of the rock to show you this is purple

of the rock to show you this is purple sandstone pure sandstone you can carve

sandstone pure sandstone you can carve

sandstone pure sandstone you can carve it with a good chisel and a bit of work

it with a good chisel and a bit of work

it with a good chisel and a bit of work and that’s what we have to do we have to

and that’s what we have to do we have to

and that’s what we have to do we have to carve it out we have to wrap it in wood

carve it out we have to wrap it in wood

carve it out we have to wrap it in wood cover we’re using the wood for struts

cover we’re using the wood for struts

cover we’re using the wood for struts cover it with plaster and then actually

cover it with plaster and then actually

cover it with plaster and then actually get under it we’ve got a chisel you’re

get under it we’ve got a chisel you’re

get under it we’ve got a chisel you’re way under it the bigger the block the

way under it the bigger the block the

way under it the bigger the block the harder that is that’s just the beginning

harder that is that’s just the beginning

harder that is that’s just the beginning then we take it back to a laboratory and

then we take it back to a laboratory and

then we take it back to a laboratory and there’ll be hours and hours of cleaning

there’ll be hours and hours of cleaning

there’ll be hours and hours of cleaning how about this one

how about this one

how about this one this is a skeleton of easier soros found

this is a skeleton of easier soros found

this is a skeleton of easier soros found in 2000 that’s Gabrielle Lian in the

in 2000 that’s Gabrielle Lian in the

in 2000 that’s Gabrielle Lian in the middle of this tale tails curving this

middle of this tale tails curving this

middle of this tale tails curving this way that’s the distal end coming around

way that’s the distal end coming around

way that’s the distal end coming around here’s the pelvic girdle and here’s the

here’s the pelvic girdle and here’s the

here’s the pelvic girdle and here’s the dorsal column we’ve brushed back the

dorsal column we’ve brushed back the

dorsal column we’ve brushed back the sand of the desert you see the tan sand

sand of the desert you see the tan sand

sand of the desert you see the tan sand that’s the purple rock underneath so

that’s the purple rock underneath so

that’s the purple rock underneath so fragile that it was planed completely

fragile that it was planed completely

fragile that it was planed completely flat you’d walk right over a 30 foot

flat you’d walk right over a 30 foot

flat you’d walk right over a 30 foot animal without even knowing it in fact

animal without even knowing it in fact

animal without even knowing it in fact we did a couple of times before someone

we did a couple of times before someone

we did a couple of times before someone spotted it some of these blocks

spotted it some of these blocks

spotted it some of these blocks extremely fragile like this tail black

extremely fragile like this tail black

extremely fragile like this tail black here she’s working her way around

here she’s working her way around

here she’s working her way around somewhere between 2,000 and 3,000 pounds

somewhere between 2,000 and 3,000 pounds

somewhere between 2,000 and 3,000 pounds by the time we turned it over yet to

by the time we turned it over yet to

by the time we turned it over yet to turn it over the vehicle inside the

turn it over the vehicle inside the

turn it over the vehicle inside the bones of a fragile animal so fragile

bones of a fragile animal so fragile

bones of a fragile animal so fragile that you could see light through some of

that you could see light through some of

that you could see light through some of the cranial bones this is the cheek bone

the cranial bones this is the cheek bone

the cranial bones this is the cheek bone with a light passing through it it was

with a light passing through it it was

with a light passing through it it was so fragile that we said we really

so fragile that we said we really

so fragile that we said we really couldn’t take the chance of casting and

couldn’t take the chance of casting and

couldn’t take the chance of casting and molding it by normal procedures which is

molding it by normal procedures which is

molding it by normal procedures which is putting silicone rubber

putting silicone rubber

putting silicone rubber over it making a mold pulling it apart

over it making a mold pulling it apart

over it making a mold pulling it apart putting plastic inside it wouldn’t

putting plastic inside it wouldn’t

putting plastic inside it wouldn’t survive we can withstand a break or two

survive we can withstand a break or two

survive we can withstand a break or two but not ten or fifteen or twenty they

but not ten or fifteen or twenty they

but not ten or fifteen or twenty they would destroy the bone and so we opted

would destroy the bone and so we opted

would destroy the bone and so we opted to take these bones plead with the

to take these bones plead with the

to take these bones plead with the airlines so we can take a big box on

airlines so we can take a big box on

airlines so we can take a big box on board and take it over to the best cat

board and take it over to the best cat

board and take it over to the best cat scanner we had industrial cat scanner so

scanner we had industrial cat scanner so

scanner we had industrial cat scanner so we could make computerized versions of

we could make computerized versions of

we could make computerized versions of these bones see inside them and make

these bones see inside them and make

these bones see inside them and make copies and when we didn’t have a right

copies and when we didn’t have a right

copies and when we didn’t have a right but had a left we could make that right

but had a left we could make that right

but had a left we could make that right with a flick of a switch and so we did

with a flick of a switch and so we did

with a flick of a switch and so we did we took this bone this is a cat scan of

we took this bone this is a cat scan of

we took this bone this is a cat scan of the bone and that’s a cheek bone and see

the bone and that’s a cheek bone and see

the bone and that’s a cheek bone and see those two extra holes those are extra

those two extra holes those are extra

those two extra holes those are extra holes found only in Asia or source just

holes found only in Asia or source just

holes found only in Asia or source just for the fun of it they’re five extra

for the fun of it they’re five extra

for the fun of it they’re five extra holes only found in this dinosaur so not

holes only found in this dinosaur so not

holes only found in this dinosaur so not pathologic there’s nothing pathologic

pathologic there’s nothing pathologic

pathologic there’s nothing pathologic about them but it gives you some idea of

about them but it gives you some idea of

about them but it gives you some idea of how thick this bone is it’s about a

how thick this bone is it’s about a

how thick this bone is it’s about a millimeter thick forms the side of the

millimeter thick forms the side of the

millimeter thick forms the side of the cheek of this dinosaur now here’s a look

cheek of this dinosaur now here’s a look

cheek of this dinosaur now here’s a look at a reconstruction of the tooth

at a reconstruction of the tooth

at a reconstruction of the tooth Batteries I found a bone that was so

Batteries I found a bone that was so

Batteries I found a bone that was so bizarre initially when we had begun to

bizarre initially when we had begun to

bizarre initially when we had begun to clean it off in the lab I disowned it I

clean it off in the lab I disowned it I

clean it off in the lab I disowned it I said all the rest of the bones belong to

said all the rest of the bones belong to

said all the rest of the bones belong to this dinosaur but not this one I tried

this dinosaur but not this one I tried

this dinosaur but not this one I tried anything I went to a colleague worked on

anything I went to a colleague worked on

anything I went to a colleague worked on in fib Ian’s for this belong to a fish I

in fib Ian’s for this belong to a fish I

in fib Ian’s for this belong to a fish I knew there was a coelacanth and the

knew there was a coelacanth and the

knew there was a coelacanth and the rivers there and he said no and I said

rivers there and he said no and I said

rivers there and he said no and I said well one day I was watching and studying

well one day I was watching and studying

well one day I was watching and studying and fiddling with these bones and all of

and fiddling with these bones and all of

and fiddling with these bones and all of a sudden it came to me maybe it had no

a sudden it came to me maybe it had no

a sudden it came to me maybe it had no two sockets maybe had a giant trough

two sockets maybe had a giant trough

two sockets maybe had a giant trough because the bones were replacing you

because the bones were replacing you

because the bones were replacing you know sauropod like that maybe all the

know sauropod like that maybe all the

know sauropod like that maybe all the bone all the teeth were at the end of

bone all the teeth were at the end of

bone all the teeth were at the end of the jaw somehow in my mind my artists

the jaw somehow in my mind my artists

the jaw somehow in my mind my artists mind I turned it around and I began to

mind I turned it around and I began to

mind I turned it around and I began to see the face of a dinosaur that we

see the face of a dinosaur that we

see the face of a dinosaur that we really had never seen before and I

really had never seen before and I

really had never seen before and I called up Jeff on the phone types of

called up Jeff on the phone types of

called up Jeff on the phone types of Jeff you’re not going to believe this we

Jeff you’re not going to believe this we

Jeff you’re not going to believe this we have a fern mower at that point I was

have a fern mower at that point I was

have a fern mower at that point I was just getting an idea of what this

just getting an idea of what this

just getting an idea of what this dinosaur looked like that its teeth

dinosaur looked like that its teeth

dinosaur looked like that its teeth worked in sockets like a few very

worked in sockets like a few very

worked in sockets like a few very distant bird hip dinosaurs who had

distant bird hip dinosaurs who had

distant bird hip dinosaurs who had developed truth betters on the sides of

developed truth betters on the sides of

developed truth betters on the sides of their jaws

their jaws

their jaws this dinosaur had done what no other

this dinosaur had done what no other

this dinosaur had done what no other dinosaur done to put all the teeth at

dinosaur done to put all the teeth at

dinosaur done to put all the teeth at the end of the jaw increase the tooth

the end of the jaw increase the tooth

the end of the jaw increase the tooth replacement rate till it had hundreds of

replacement rate till it had hundreds of

replacement rate till it had hundreds of teeth in its jaw holding themselves into

teeth in its jaw holding themselves into

teeth in its jaw holding themselves into place and coming out of the jaw on mass

place and coming out of the jaw on mass

place and coming out of the jaw on mass several hundred below several hundred

several hundred below several hundred

several hundred below several hundred above but different than an order this

above but different than an order this

above but different than an order this can only one tooth in each column would

can only one tooth in each column would

can only one tooth in each column would be active at a time creating a scissors

be active at a time creating a scissors

be active at a time creating a scissors edge ten inches wide above and below to

edge ten inches wide above and below to

edge ten inches wide above and below to crop plants like we’d never seen before

crop plants like we’d never seen before

crop plants like we’d never seen before now we had never seen a set of jaws like

now we had never seen a set of jaws like

now we had never seen a set of jaws like this before in any dinosaur so I excused

this before in any dinosaur so I excused

this before in any dinosaur so I excused myself for not recognizing the jaw bone

myself for not recognizing the jaw bone

myself for not recognizing the jaw bone until it was almost virtually clean we

until it was almost virtually clean we

until it was almost virtually clean we began to put the skull together and what

began to put the skull together and what

began to put the skull together and what emerged with a Darth Vader dinosaur

emerged with a Darth Vader dinosaur

emerged with a Darth Vader dinosaur something I’ve never really imagined

something I’ve never really imagined

something I’ve never really imagined until we really tried to put it all

until we really tried to put it all

until we really tried to put it all together but we had so many of the bones

together but we had so many of the bones

together but we had so many of the bones that there was no cause for thinking

that there was no cause for thinking

that there was no cause for thinking that we had made a mistake we went back

that we had made a mistake we went back

that we had made a mistake we went back over and over again but you’re left with

over and over again but you’re left with

over and over again but you’re left with very little wiggle room when you have

very little wiggle room when you have

very little wiggle room when you have 80% of the skull so here we have storia

80% of the skull so here we have storia

80% of the skull so here we have storia to the nice round eye socket here’s the

to the nice round eye socket here’s the

to the nice round eye socket here’s the nose it’s the nose opening in the skull

nose it’s the nose opening in the skull

nose it’s the nose opening in the skull here’s the tooth and the teeth extend

here’s the tooth and the teeth extend

here’s the tooth and the teeth extend all the way up into the jaws here’s a

all the way up into the jaws here’s a

all the way up into the jaws here’s a couple of extra holes in the lower jaw

couple of extra holes in the lower jaw

couple of extra holes in the lower jaw all of it very thin and well we took

all of it very thin and well we took

all of it very thin and well we took that model which was made from

that model which was made from

that model which was made from computerized prototypes the first at

computerized prototypes the first at

computerized prototypes the first at time that had ever been done and we

time that had ever been done and we

time that had ever been done and we passed it back through the cat scan

passed it back through the cat scan

passed it back through the cat scan machine so we can have a complete

machine so we can have a complete

machine so we can have a complete computerized version of the skull then

computerized version of the skull then

computerized version of the skull then in the computer we could cut it in half

in the computer we could cut it in half

in the computer we could cut it in half we could cut it in any direction we want

we could cut it in any direction we want

we could cut it in any direction we want so the red cross-sections you see I did

so the red cross-sections you see I did

so the red cross-sections you see I did in the computer and I calculated the

in the computer and I calculated the

in the computer and I calculated the area of those cross sections because

area of those cross sections because

area of those cross sections because that bone is the bone that connects this

that bone is the bone that connects this

that bone is the bone that connects this eating machine at this end to the back

eating machine at this end to the back

eating machine at this end to the back end of the skull whatever forces are at

end of the skull whatever forces are at

end of the skull whatever forces are at work at the jaw are going to have to be

work at the jaw are going to have to be

work at the jaw are going to have to be transmitted and absorbed by the bone

transmitted and absorbed by the bone

transmitted and absorbed by the bone connecting it to the rest of the skull

connecting it to the rest of the skull

connecting it to the rest of the skull which is connected to the neck less than

which is connected to the neck less than

which is connected to the neck less than a square half-inch of bone taking all

a square half-inch of bone taking all

a square half-inch of bone taking all the bone into account as staggering and

the bone into account as staggering and

the bone into account as staggering and it’s going to keep those engineers

it’s going to keep those engineers

it’s going to keep those engineers puzzled over how this dinosaur did it

puzzled over how this dinosaur did it

puzzled over how this dinosaur did it but truly it is a dinosaur and a face

but truly it is a dinosaur and a face

but truly it is a dinosaur and a face that nobody has ever seen on land

that nobody has ever seen on land

that nobody has ever seen on land for when you see that as a

for when you see that as a

for when you see that as a paleontologist that’s a pretty heavy

paleontologist that’s a pretty heavy

paleontologist that’s a pretty heavy statement that no tetrapod in the last

statement that no tetrapod in the last

statement that no tetrapod in the last 350 million years on land has ever taken

350 million years on land has ever taken

350 million years on land has ever taken the jaws and put all the teeth at the

the jaws and put all the teeth at the

the jaws and put all the teeth at the distal end why not because it’s the

distal end why not because it’s the

distal end why not because it’s the farthest point from the muscles the

farthest point from the muscles the

farthest point from the muscles the farthest point from the jaw joint no

farthest point from the jaw joint no

farthest point from the jaw joint no dinosaur has ever put truth batteries at

dinosaur has ever put truth batteries at

dinosaur has ever put truth batteries at the end of their jaws no dinosaur has

the end of their jaws no dinosaur has

the end of their jaws no dinosaur has ever taken the jaws and extended them

ever taken the jaws and extended them

ever taken the jaws and extended them beyond the side of the face why because

beyond the side of the face why because

beyond the side of the face why because it is a dangerous thing to do you grab

it is a dangerous thing to do you grab

it is a dangerous thing to do you grab something in this side of your jaws it

something in this side of your jaws it

something in this side of your jaws it better be something awful soft so we

better be something awful soft so we

better be something awful soft so we have an animal here that really broke a

have an animal here that really broke a

have an animal here that really broke a lot of rules

lot of rules

lot of rules those rules are anytime you want to make

those rules are anytime you want to make

those rules are anytime you want to make chewing a true matter of lifelike

chewing a true matter of lifelike

chewing a true matter of lifelike mammals you’re going to develop big

mammals you’re going to develop big

mammals you’re going to develop big muscles you’re going to develop coronoid

muscles you’re going to develop coronoid

muscles you’re going to develop coronoid processes you’re going to make your

processes you’re going to make your

processes you’re going to make your bones more robust you’re going to close

bones more robust you’re going to close

bones more robust you’re going to close the openings of the skull we’ve seen

the openings of the skull we’ve seen

the openings of the skull we’ve seen this happen several times especially in

this happen several times especially in

this happen several times especially in those dinosaurs that developed the tooth

those dinosaurs that developed the tooth

those dinosaurs that developed the tooth batteries but not knees your swords is

batteries but not knees your swords is

batteries but not knees your swords is able to break the rules and so we wonder

able to break the rules and so we wonder

able to break the rules and so we wonder why we look at the skull now the cat

why we look at the skull now the cat

why we look at the skull now the cat scan of the skull rotating just to see a

scan of the skull rotating just to see a

scan of the skull rotating just to see a little bit how thin some of these bones

little bit how thin some of these bones

little bit how thin some of these bones are it really is a featherweight skull

are it really is a featherweight skull

are it really is a featherweight skull but that’s not where our investigation

but that’s not where our investigation

but that’s not where our investigation would would stop we wanted to understand

would would stop we wanted to understand

would would stop we wanted to understand what was the orientation of such a

what was the orientation of such a

what was the orientation of such a bizarre skull such an extreme skull well

bizarre skull such an extreme skull well

bizarre skull such an extreme skull well I had my notions with a big flat muzzle

I had my notions with a big flat muzzle

I had my notions with a big flat muzzle like that I had my notions that it was

like that I had my notions that it was

like that I had my notions that it was probably munching something close to the

probably munching something close to the

probably munching something close to the ground but how could I prove that

ground but how could I prove that

ground but how could I prove that independent of of the bones themselves

independent of of the bones themselves

independent of of the bones themselves well turns out if you look into the ear

well turns out if you look into the ear

well turns out if you look into the ear region of the dinosaur from the cat

region of the dinosaur from the cat

region of the dinosaur from the cat scans we could in fact reproduce its

scans we could in fact reproduce its

scans we could in fact reproduce its brain space we could do more than that

brain space we could do more than that

brain space we could do more than that we could go in and visualize the organ

we could go in and visualize the organ

we could go in and visualize the organ of equilibrium the semicircular canals

of equilibrium the semicircular canals

of equilibrium the semicircular canals inside the side wall of the brain case

inside the side wall of the brain case

inside the side wall of the brain case the only way you can see that without a

the only way you can see that without a

the only way you can see that without a cat scan is take a hammer to the skull

cat scan is take a hammer to the skull

cat scan is take a hammer to the skull and break it apart we weren’t going to

and break it apart we weren’t going to

and break it apart we weren’t going to do that so the only specimen but we

do that so the only specimen but we

do that so the only specimen but we could see it on the cat scan we rebuilt

could see it on the cat scan we rebuilt

could see it on the cat scan we rebuilt it here it is here in pink the three

it here it is here in pink the three

it here it is here in pink the three semicircular canals that allow me to

semicircular canals that allow me to

semicircular canals that allow me to talk without falling over and move

talk without falling over and move

talk without falling over and move around

around

around there’s one canal the horizontal canal

there’s one canal the horizontal canal

there’s one canal the horizontal canal on the side that in a human skull will

on the side that in a human skull will

on the side that in a human skull will give you the habitual posture when you

give you the habitual posture when you

give you the habitual posture when you put it into a horizontal position in

put it into a horizontal position in

put it into a horizontal position in human to put your head like this we’ve

human to put your head like this we’ve

human to put your head like this we’ve used that in other kinds of living

used that in other kinds of living

used that in other kinds of living animals and fossil animals to determine

animals and fossil animals to determine

animals and fossil animals to determine the orientation of the skull so

the orientation of the skull so

the orientation of the skull so naturally that was what I was after in

naturally that was what I was after in

naturally that was what I was after in easier Soros I wanted to know what was

easier Soros I wanted to know what was

easier Soros I wanted to know what was the habitual posture of the skull and so

the habitual posture of the skull and so

the habitual posture of the skull and so after we had extracted the brain which

after we had extracted the brain which

after we had extracted the brain which was the first for a sauropod where we

was the first for a sauropod where we

was the first for a sauropod where we could see the cerebrum the forebrain the

could see the cerebrum the forebrain the

could see the cerebrum the forebrain the thinking part of the brain this little

thinking part of the brain this little

thinking part of the brain this little swollen area a little less impressive

swollen area a little less impressive

swollen area a little less impressive when I tell you that yes it is the size

when I tell you that yes it is the size

when I tell you that yes it is the size of the proverbial walnut but it was

of the proverbial walnut but it was

of the proverbial walnut but it was enough to live on for this animal live

enough to live on for this animal live

enough to live on for this animal live very successfully the part that smells

very successfully the part that smells

very successfully the part that smells the olfactory bulbs here we have one of

the olfactory bulbs here we have one of

the olfactory bulbs here we have one of these out of the display colored so that

these out of the display colored so that

these out of the display colored so that you can see them but this internal organ

you can see them but this internal organ

you can see them but this internal organ here is what I was after in particular

here is what I was after in particular

here is what I was after in particular and when you put that in a horizontal

and when you put that in a horizontal

and when you put that in a horizontal position like this here you can see the

position like this here you can see the

position like this here you can see the rotation I’m irika we put this in we

rotation I’m irika we put this in we

rotation I’m irika we put this in we built this in a computer and you see the

built this in a computer and you see the

built this in a computer and you see the little semicircular canals that’s the

little semicircular canals that’s the

little semicircular canals that’s the solid bone what’s around that and we

solid bone what’s around that and we

solid bone what’s around that and we oriented the skull this is the

oriented the skull this is the

oriented the skull this is the orientation that we got and it was a

orientation that we got and it was a

orientation that we got and it was a shocker to me I didn’t tell the person

shocker to me I didn’t tell the person

shocker to me I didn’t tell the person who was who I had brought onto the

who was who I had brought onto the

who was who I had brought onto the project to reconstruct the semicircle

project to reconstruct the semicircle

project to reconstruct the semicircle canals where it was positioned in the

canals where it was positioned in the

canals where it was positioned in the skull and he sent me those results and I

skull and he sent me those results and I

skull and he sent me those results and I was just I was amazed and stunned we had

was just I was amazed and stunned we had

was just I was amazed and stunned we had in fact found a fern mower that was

in fact found a fern mower that was

in fact found a fern mower that was sticking its snout directly towards the

sticking its snout directly towards the

sticking its snout directly towards the ground most of the time now this is how

ground most of the time now this is how

ground most of the time now this is how we were taught the skull at an

we were taught the skull at an

we were taught the skull at an anatomical description 90 degrees to

anatomical description 90 degrees to

anatomical description 90 degrees to what we would normally do this is not

what we would normally do this is not

what we would normally do this is not the top of the skull on average that’s

the top of the skull on average that’s

the top of the skull on average that’s the front of the skull and here’s the

the front of the skull and here’s the

the front of the skull and here’s the lower jaws again bizarre by all

lower jaws again bizarre by all

lower jaws again bizarre by all standards we wanted to investigate the

standards we wanted to investigate the

standards we wanted to investigate the teeth as well because when we unveiled

teeth as well because when we unveiled

teeth as well because when we unveiled this thing it was going to be quite a

this thing it was going to be quite a

this thing it was going to be quite a sensation it’s going to cause a lot of

sensation it’s going to cause a lot of

sensation it’s going to cause a lot of people headaches from what they had said

people headaches from what they had said

people headaches from what they had said in the past and maybe headaches from

in the past and maybe headaches from

in the past and maybe headaches from trying to predict how the skull handled

trying to predict how the skull handled

trying to predict how the skull handled it and we wanted to get as much

it and we wanted to get as much

it and we wanted to get as much information as we could from the teeth

information as we could from the teeth

information as we could from the teeth so here’s a tooth blown up there’s a

so here’s a tooth blown up there’s a

so here’s a tooth blown up there’s a weird facet on the inside this is an

weird facet on the inside this is an

weird facet on the inside this is an upper tooth and aware facet on the

upper tooth and aware facet on the

upper tooth and aware facet on the outside the perfect tooth would look

outside the perfect tooth would look

outside the perfect tooth would look like a cone it would come to a top and

like a cone it would come to a top and

like a cone it would come to a top and as you

as you

as you or it developed facets where facets that

or it developed facets where facets that

or it developed facets where facets that would tell us what it was doing with his

would tell us what it was doing with his

would tell us what it was doing with his teeth one was pretty clear enough this

teeth one was pretty clear enough this

teeth one was pretty clear enough this was produced by another tooth nice

was produced by another tooth nice

was produced by another tooth nice flatware facet as the jaws came together

flatware facet as the jaws came together

flatware facet as the jaws came together they came together very precisely and

they came together very precisely and

they came together very precisely and slid past each other

slid past each other

slid past each other sniffing off plants along the entire row

sniffing off plants along the entire row

sniffing off plants along the entire row synchronously there’s another where

synchronously there’s another where

synchronously there’s another where facet on the outside of the teeth a

facet on the outside of the teeth a

facet on the outside of the teeth a wedge-shaped where facet this one when

wedge-shaped where facet this one when

wedge-shaped where facet this one when you look at it under microscope was

you look at it under microscope was

you look at it under microscope was caused by abrasion abrasion against

caused by abrasion abrasion against

caused by abrasion abrasion against plants abrasion against something

plants abrasion against something

plants abrasion against something because it’s on the outside of the teeth

because it’s on the outside of the teeth

because it’s on the outside of the teeth and when we look inside the teeth you

and when we look inside the teeth you

and when we look inside the teeth you cut a cross section like this and I

cut a cross section like this and I

cut a cross section like this and I found we had one spare jaw with a couple

found we had one spare jaw with a couple

found we had one spare jaw with a couple of teeth in it and so here’s that slice

of teeth in it and so here’s that slice

of teeth in it and so here’s that slice and here’s a piece of the tooth expand

and here’s a piece of the tooth expand

and here’s a piece of the tooth expand it up it looks like you’re looking at

it up it looks like you’re looking at

it up it looks like you’re looking at petrified wood with tree rings because

petrified wood with tree rings because

petrified wood with tree rings because that’s what it is it happens in our

that’s what it is it happens in our

that’s what it is it happens in our teeth too under a magnifying lens you

teeth too under a magnifying lens you

teeth too under a magnifying lens you can see rings in our teeth they were

can see rings in our teeth they were

can see rings in our teeth they were laid down every day in the development

laid down every day in the development

laid down every day in the development of the tooth so you can tell how old

of the tooth so you can tell how old

of the tooth so you can tell how old that tooth is and if you calculate and

that tooth is and if you calculate and

that tooth is and if you calculate and add up the rings in one tooth and you

add up the rings in one tooth and you

add up the rings in one tooth and you happen to have the tooth of succeeding

happen to have the tooth of succeeding

happen to have the tooth of succeeding it you can calculate the rate at which

it you can calculate the rate at which

it you can calculate the rate at which they were replacing and we calculated

they were replacing and we calculated

they were replacing and we calculated that rate and it sets an all-time record

that rate and it sets an all-time record

that rate and it sets an all-time record for dinosaurs 30 days plus or minus a

for dinosaurs 30 days plus or minus a

for dinosaurs 30 days plus or minus a few one month is what a tooth lasted in

few one month is what a tooth lasted in

few one month is what a tooth lasted in the jaw of need your source which is

the jaw of need your source which is

the jaw of need your source which is incredible incredible rate of tooth

incredible incredible rate of tooth

incredible incredible rate of tooth replacement as part of the reason why it

replacement as part of the reason why it

replacement as part of the reason why it had to have ten teeth in a column

had to have ten teeth in a column

had to have ten teeth in a column because it takes a certain amount of

because it takes a certain amount of

because it takes a certain amount of time to create a tooth and so if you

time to create a tooth and so if you

time to create a tooth and so if you want to wear your teeth down that

want to wear your teeth down that

want to wear your teeth down that rapidly you have to start reproducing

rapidly you have to start reproducing

rapidly you have to start reproducing your teeth before you know before the

your teeth before you know before the

your teeth before you know before the other one wears out you have to have

other one wears out you have to have

other one wears out you have to have many teeth in the process of formation

many teeth in the process of formation

many teeth in the process of formation so with that we’re able to sort of get a

so with that we’re able to sort of get a

so with that we’re able to sort of get a picture of what this dinosaur was like

picture of what this dinosaur was like

picture of what this dinosaur was like it was muzzle down most of the time it

it was muzzle down most of the time it

it was muzzle down most of the time it had hundreds of teeth in its jaws and

had hundreds of teeth in its jaws and

had hundreds of teeth in its jaws and one sharp edge like a scissors at the

one sharp edge like a scissors at the

one sharp edge like a scissors at the front of its jaws were operating now

front of its jaws were operating now

front of its jaws were operating now that’s the first stage of reconstruction

that’s the first stage of reconstruction

that’s the first stage of reconstruction and this is painting we are good in good

and this is painting we are good in good

and this is painting we are good in good stead with Dinosaurs when we’re doing

stead with Dinosaurs when we’re doing

stead with Dinosaurs when we’re doing reconstruction a lot of people think

reconstruction a lot of people think

reconstruction a lot of people think that it’s just all guesswork I mean

that it’s just all guesswork I mean

that it’s just all guesswork I mean after all there’s no skin preserved

after all there’s no skin preserved

after all there’s no skin preserved right it’s just all

right it’s just all

right it’s just all well not really it’s guesswork to a

well not really it’s guesswork to a

well not really it’s guesswork to a certain level but a lot of it is based

certain level but a lot of it is based

certain level but a lot of it is based on what we know from living reptiles

on what we know from living reptiles

on what we know from living reptiles fortunately this is a human face and not

fortunately this is a human face and not

fortunately this is a human face and not a real ones of drawing a painting but it

a real ones of drawing a painting but it

a real ones of drawing a painting but it shows all the muscles in the face the

shows all the muscles in the face the

shows all the muscles in the face the muscles I’m using to talk and articulate

muscles I’m using to talk and articulate

muscles I’m using to talk and articulate with and so on these are actually not

with and so on these are actually not

with and so on these are actually not present in any living reptile we don’t

present in any living reptile we don’t

present in any living reptile we don’t think they’re present and dinosaurs are

think they’re present and dinosaurs are

think they’re present and dinosaurs are not present in birds or crocodiles so we

not present in birds or crocodiles so we

not present in birds or crocodiles so we don’t have to worry about those

don’t have to worry about those

don’t have to worry about those fortunately it’s really much more hard

fortunately it’s really much more hard

fortunately it’s really much more hard to reconstruct a mammal face because of

to reconstruct a mammal face because of

to reconstruct a mammal face because of all these extra muscles that migrate out

all these extra muscles that migrate out

all these extra muscles that migrate out into the face especially a human to give

into the face especially a human to give

into the face especially a human to give us muscles of expression we think

us muscles of expression we think

us muscles of expression we think dinosaurs were less emotive that way

dinosaurs were less emotive that way

dinosaurs were less emotive that way they would have grunted and groaned but

they would have grunted and groaned but

they would have grunted and groaned but they couldn’t make faces at you quite

they couldn’t make faces at you quite

they couldn’t make faces at you quite that way

that way

that way so reconstructing them is a lot easier

so reconstructing them is a lot easier

so reconstructing them is a lot easier you just need to stick to the bones and

you just need to stick to the bones and

you just need to stick to the bones and you need to look at those bones you need

you need to look at those bones you need

you need to look at those bones you need to see if you can see any vessels if you

to see if you can see any vessels if you

to see if you can see any vessels if you see impressed vessels that means the

see impressed vessels that means the

see impressed vessels that means the skin was tight you don’t see them the

skin was tight you don’t see them the

skin was tight you don’t see them the skin was a little bit looser you see

skin was a little bit looser you see

skin was a little bit looser you see ornamented ridges in living reptiles it

ornamented ridges in living reptiles it

ornamented ridges in living reptiles it means there was scales it might have

means there was scales it might have

means there was scales it might have been a little bit larger because there

been a little bit larger because there

been a little bit larger because there might have been some contact there and

might have been some contact there and

might have been some contact there and so this is we’ve done in the computer

so this is we’ve done in the computer

so this is we’ve done in the computer putting skin over a cat scan of the

putting skin over a cat scan of the

putting skin over a cat scan of the skull and so here you see the skull and

skull and so here you see the skull and

skull and so here you see the skull and here you see the skin over the skull so

here you see the skin over the skull so

here you see the skin over the skull so it’s done by a student we can also do it

it’s done by a student we can also do it

it’s done by a student we can also do it physically and we think this is one of

physically and we think this is one of

physically and we think this is one of the most accurate reconstructions of the

the most accurate reconstructions of the

the most accurate reconstructions of the sauropod built right over a copy of the

sauropod built right over a copy of the

sauropod built right over a copy of the skull again ornamented where we see

skull again ornamented where we see

skull again ornamented where we see rough skin turning to keratin like a

rough skin turning to keratin like a

rough skin turning to keratin like a bill where we see the impressed vessel

bill where we see the impressed vessel

bill where we see the impressed vessel and that’s our best guess if there was

and that’s our best guess if there was

and that’s our best guess if there was some kind of a bill again for protection

some kind of a bill again for protection

some kind of a bill again for protection against rubbing against something in the

against rubbing against something in the

against rubbing against something in the course of the life of this animal we put

course of the life of this animal we put

course of the life of this animal we put a big tongue in here because in fact

a big tongue in here because in fact

a big tongue in here because in fact almost all dinosaurs have two big tongue

almost all dinosaurs have two big tongue

almost all dinosaurs have two big tongue bones that indicate they did have a

bones that indicate they did have a

bones that indicate they did have a loose and free tongue that was used for

loose and free tongue that was used for

loose and free tongue that was used for manipulating plant matter this was a

manipulating plant matter this was a

manipulating plant matter this was a dinosaur that was a this was a fern

dinosaur that was a this was a fern

dinosaur that was a this was a fern mower it was dedicated and an eating

mower it was dedicated and an eating

mower it was dedicated and an eating machine for cropping plants slicing them

machine for cropping plants slicing them

machine for cropping plants slicing them off it was not chewing its cud like a

off it was not chewing its cud like a

off it was not chewing its cud like a cow the tongue would rapidly move the

cow the tongue would rapidly move the

cow the tongue would rapidly move the food back plant matter back for

food back plant matter back for

food back plant matter back for processing and perhaps ferment

processing and perhaps ferment

processing and perhaps ferment in the gut what about the body

in the gut what about the body

in the gut what about the body well knees your asaurus loser sources

well knees your asaurus loser sources

well knees your asaurus loser sources body was on our mind for quite some time

body was on our mind for quite some time

body was on our mind for quite some time this is that what we do for fun in the

this is that what we do for fun in the

this is that what we do for fun in the middle of the Sahara we take open up the

middle of the Sahara we take open up the

middle of the Sahara we take open up the exposure on a flashlight and you take a

exposure on a flashlight and you take a

exposure on a flashlight and you take a flashlight open up the camera you draw a

flashlight open up the camera you draw a

flashlight open up the camera you draw a dinosaur in pitch blackness throw the

dinosaur in pitch blackness throw the

dinosaur in pitch blackness throw the camera to throw the flashlight down and

camera to throw the flashlight down and

camera to throw the flashlight down and then pose for a little flash with your

then pose for a little flash with your

then pose for a little flash with your drawing and not a bad rendition when we

drawing and not a bad rendition when we

drawing and not a bad rendition when we hadn’t built the skeleton yet so here’s

hadn’t built the skeleton yet so here’s

hadn’t built the skeleton yet so here’s a look 10 years after the initial

a look 10 years after the initial

a look 10 years after the initial discovery after all the bones that were

discovery after all the bones that were

discovery after all the bones that were prepared it was a forensic case we had

prepared it was a forensic case we had

prepared it was a forensic case we had to take about 5 skeletons and overlap

to take about 5 skeletons and overlap

to take about 5 skeletons and overlap them I chose the skeleton with the skull

them I chose the skeleton with the skull

them I chose the skeleton with the skull that skeleton went back to the base of

that skeleton went back to the base of

that skeleton went back to the base of the neck there was another skeleton that

the neck there was another skeleton that

the neck there was another skeleton that started before the base of the neck and

started before the base of the neck and

started before the base of the neck and went into the back series then there was

went into the back series then there was

went into the back series then there was a skeleton I showed you a picture of

a skeleton I showed you a picture of

a skeleton I showed you a picture of that took from the base of the neck went

that took from the base of the neck went

that took from the base of the neck went through the dorsal series and out

through the dorsal series and out

through the dorsal series and out through the pelvic girdle into the tail

through the pelvic girdle into the tail

through the pelvic girdle into the tail and then we had another one that started

and then we had another one that started

and then we had another one that started in the middle the tail went out to the

in the middle the tail went out to the

in the middle the tail went out to the end of the tail we were missing some

end of the tail we were missing some

end of the tail we were missing some bones

bones

bones we had about 80% of the bones where we

we had about 80% of the bones where we

we had about 80% of the bones where we had a right limb it was just as good as

had a right limb it was just as good as

had a right limb it was just as good as having a right in the left limb you put

having a right in the left limb you put

having a right in the left limb you put all the information together we had 80%

all the information together we had 80%

all the information together we had 80% of the skeleton and I think we we have a

of the skeleton and I think we we have a

of the skeleton and I think we we have a pretty good idea of what it looked like

pretty good idea of what it looked like

pretty good idea of what it looked like it had a long neck but short by sauropod

it had a long neck but short by sauropod

it had a long neck but short by sauropod standards neosaurus belongs to a tightly

standards neosaurus belongs to a tightly

standards neosaurus belongs to a tightly knit group of species most of which we

knit group of species most of which we

knit group of species most of which we found last 25 years with a weird name of

found last 25 years with a weird name of

found last 25 years with a weird name of robots sorted sauropods named after a

robots sorted sauropods named after a

robots sorted sauropods named after a good Italian robot II no one has ever

good Italian robot II no one has ever

good Italian robot II no one has ever seen one of these dinosaurs look like as

seen one of these dinosaurs look like as

seen one of these dinosaurs look like as a whole skeleton this is the first skull

a whole skeleton this is the first skull

a whole skeleton this is the first skull more distantly it’s related to

more distantly it’s related to

more distantly it’s related to Diplodocus and like Diplodocus many of

Diplodocus and like Diplodocus many of

Diplodocus and like Diplodocus many of its bones are hollowed by air sacs that

its bones are hollowed by air sacs that

its bones are hollowed by air sacs that extend from the lung in the neck this

extend from the lung in the neck this

extend from the lung in the neck this leaves a very hollow vertebra not only

leaves a very hollow vertebra not only

leaves a very hollow vertebra not only is it pushed in from the side with

is it pushed in from the side with

is it pushed in from the side with hollow air sacs but they invade the bone

hollow air sacs but they invade the bone

hollow air sacs but they invade the bone to hollow out the inside you can see

to hollow out the inside you can see

to hollow out the inside you can see this extreme condition in a in a

this extreme condition in a in a

this extreme condition in a in a vertebra from the back here’s a big hole

vertebra from the back here’s a big hole

vertebra from the back here’s a big hole air tracks coming back from the lungs go

air tracks coming back from the lungs go

air tracks coming back from the lungs go inside the vertebrae leaving you this in

inside the vertebrae leaving you this in

inside the vertebrae leaving you this in cross-section it’s more air than bone

cross-section it’s more air than bone

cross-section it’s more air than bone there’s more air

there’s more air

there’s more air in the column that is supporting the

in the column that is supporting the

in the column that is supporting the weight of this animal then bone you want

weight of this animal then bone you want

weight of this animal then bone you want to calculate the weight of this animal

to calculate the weight of this animal

to calculate the weight of this animal you calculate its volume and then you

you calculate its volume and then you

you calculate its volume and then you subtract about 20% or 15% for air we

subtract about 20% or 15% for air we

subtract about 20% or 15% for air we don’t think of that normally when we

don’t think of that normally when we

don’t think of that normally when we think about elephants and rhinos and

think about elephants and rhinos and

think about elephants and rhinos and hippos because these are mammals and

hippos because these are mammals and

hippos because these are mammals and mammals never do this you got to

mammals never do this you got to

mammals never do this you got to remember that as far as this looks from

remember that as far as this looks from

remember that as far as this looks from a bird a bird is its closest relative

a bird a bird is its closest relative

a bird a bird is its closest relative among living animals and birds do this

among living animals and birds do this

among living animals and birds do this all the time their birds are typically

all the time their birds are typically

all the time their birds are typically about 20% air air sacs from the line

about 20% air air sacs from the line

about 20% air air sacs from the line this animal was trying to lighten itself

this animal was trying to lighten itself

this animal was trying to lighten itself to the point of absurdity we’re going to

to the point of absurdity we’re going to

to the point of absurdity we’re going to hand that off to the biomechanics to

hand that off to the biomechanics to

hand that off to the biomechanics to explain how it could get away with

explain how it could get away with

explain how it could get away with lightening the skeleton as much as it

lightening the skeleton as much as it

lightening the skeleton as much as it did it wasn’t I don’t think a flotation

did it wasn’t I don’t think a flotation

did it wasn’t I don’t think a flotation device I think it was just trying to

device I think it was just trying to

device I think it was just trying to reduce the amount of living tissue it

reduce the amount of living tissue it

reduce the amount of living tissue it had to support and still get by and it

had to support and still get by and it

had to support and still get by and it was doing it quite successfully because

was doing it quite successfully because

was doing it quite successfully because it was the most common large herbivore

it was the most common large herbivore

it was the most common large herbivore of the day along with one other

of the day along with one other

of the day along with one other herbivore in the in the beds in issue

herbivore in the in the beds in issue

herbivore in the in the beds in issue Galasso this is a closer look at the

Galasso this is a closer look at the

Galasso this is a closer look at the dorsal vertebra to show you what a

dorsal vertebra to show you what a

dorsal vertebra to show you what a cross-section looks like through here I

cross-section looks like through here I

cross-section looks like through here I mean you can’t pick up these vertebrae

mean you can’t pick up these vertebrae

mean you can’t pick up these vertebrae when they’re fossil they just they just

when they’re fossil they just they just

when they’re fossil they just they just crumble in life there were been stronger

crumble in life there were been stronger

crumble in life there were been stronger than that but they are really a

than that but they are really a

than that but they are really a biomechanical wonder that they supported

biomechanical wonder that they supported

biomechanical wonder that they supported an animal that even taking 15% air would

an animal that even taking 15% air would

an animal that even taking 15% air would weigh as much as an indian elephant and

weigh as much as an indian elephant and

weigh as much as an indian elephant and here we have the picture of nezer soros

here we have the picture of nezer soros

here we have the picture of nezer soros after putting that story together now

after putting that story together now

after putting that story together now sauropods have gone through a lot what

sauropods have gone through a lot what

sauropods have gone through a lot what was near soros doing with a head like

was near soros doing with a head like

was near soros doing with a head like that a body like that

that a body like that

that a body like that well first we thought that the bodies of

well first we thought that the bodies of

well first we thought that the bodies of these animals were so heavy they must

these animals were so heavy they must

these animals were so heavy they must have had to lived in water we had them

have had to lived in water we had them

have had to lived in water we had them in marshes and all the time when I was a

in marshes and all the time when I was a

in marshes and all the time when I was a kid they were always in the marshes

kid they were always in the marshes

kid they were always in the marshes pulling up I don’t know marine plants of

pulling up I don’t know marine plants of

pulling up I don’t know marine plants of some sort at the top of a tall net as

some sort at the top of a tall net as

some sort at the top of a tall net as I’m telling you most of these animals

I’m telling you most of these animals

I’m telling you most of these animals are at least 15% air because they all

are at least 15% air because they all

are at least 15% air because they all have air pockets although neither shores

have air pockets although neither shores

have air pockets although neither shores takes it to an extreme the neck well the

takes it to an extreme the neck well the

takes it to an extreme the neck well the longest necked animal we build our

longest necked animal we build our

longest necked animal we build our models on is giraffe and drafts neck

models on is giraffe and drafts neck

models on is giraffe and drafts neck obviously is to let it eat and browse in

obviously is to let it eat and browse in

obviously is to let it eat and browse in the trees

the trees

the trees but ourselves and our mammal cousins are

but ourselves and our mammal cousins are

but ourselves and our mammal cousins are not necessarily the best model for for

not necessarily the best model for for

not necessarily the best model for for bird like animal and so closer study of

bird like animal and so closer study of

bird like animal and so closer study of the neck of brachiosaur and many other

the neck of brachiosaur and many other

the neck of brachiosaur and many other sauropods but including brachiosaur s

sauropods but including brachiosaur s

sauropods but including brachiosaur s shows us that the neck was much lower

shows us that the neck was much lower

shows us that the neck was much lower we cannot justify turning the neck at

we cannot justify turning the neck at

we cannot justify turning the neck at almost 45 degrees upwards to justify

almost 45 degrees upwards to justify

almost 45 degrees upwards to justify this pose and so the next came down but

this pose and so the next came down but

this pose and so the next came down but it’s a giraffe that ultimately this was

it’s a giraffe that ultimately this was

it’s a giraffe that ultimately this was built on and so on we would typically

built on and so on we would typically

built on and so on we would typically get these kinds of images of sauropods

get these kinds of images of sauropods

get these kinds of images of sauropods we’re not sure at this point if many

we’re not sure at this point if many

we’re not sure at this point if many sauropods had the next up at all but

sauropods had the next up at all but

sauropods had the next up at all but certainly they didn’t have them up that

certainly they didn’t have them up that

certainly they didn’t have them up that high now some people did think that some

high now some people did think that some

high now some people did think that some dinosaurs were low browsers browsing

dinosaurs were low browsers browsing

dinosaurs were low browsers browsing close to the ground but they were

close to the ground but they were

close to the ground but they were usually late in the cretaceous and the

usually late in the cretaceous and the

usually late in the cretaceous and the idea from from Bob Bakker published in

idea from from Bob Bakker published in

idea from from Bob Bakker published in 1986 was that well maybe they even

1986 was that well maybe they even

1986 was that well maybe they even invented flowers by destroying plants

invented flowers by destroying plants

invented flowers by destroying plants lows to the ground they gave rise to the

lows to the ground they gave rise to the

lows to the ground they gave rise to the weedy angiosperm flowers and plants that

weedy angiosperm flowers and plants that

weedy angiosperm flowers and plants that we have today they occur about the same

we have today they occur about the same

we have today they occur about the same time the duckbills at the end of the

time the duckbills at the end of the

time the duckbills at the end of the cretaceous and angiosperms

cretaceous and angiosperms

cretaceous and angiosperms but we’re dealing with already with

but we’re dealing with already with

but we’re dealing with already with neither source which is older 110

neither source which is older 110

neither source which is older 110 million years and quite frankly if you

million years and quite frankly if you

million years and quite frankly if you look at others of its kin Diplodocus in

look at others of its kin Diplodocus in

look at others of its kin Diplodocus in particular these go back to the Upper

particular these go back to the Upper

particular these go back to the Upper Jurassic so what were these animals

Jurassic so what were these animals

Jurassic so what were these animals eating well first again diplo das is the

eating well first again diplo das is the

eating well first again diplo das is the group that that needs our sources

group that that needs our sources

group that that needs our sources closest to have very long necks and Bob

closest to have very long necks and Bob

closest to have very long necks and Bob Bakker also said that these might have

Bakker also said that these might have

Bakker also said that these might have given rise to the tallest the canopy

given rise to the tallest the canopy

given rise to the tallest the canopy eaters

eaters

eaters maybe they got up on their tail and

maybe they got up on their tail and

maybe they got up on their tail and their hind legs in a tripodo posture

their hind legs in a tripodo posture

their hind legs in a tripodo posture allowing them to get up to 40 feet to

allowing them to get up to 40 feet to

allowing them to get up to 40 feet to munch on these conifers these are

munch on these conifers these are

munch on these conifers these are occurring or monk monkey puzzle like

occurring or monk monkey puzzle like

occurring or monk monkey puzzle like trees in the canopy

trees in the canopy

trees in the canopy well again studies in detail really have

well again studies in detail really have

well again studies in detail really have not justified that in the last 15 years

not justified that in the last 15 years

not justified that in the last 15 years the vertebrae in natural pose when you

the vertebrae in natural pose when you

the vertebrae in natural pose when you pose them carefully and look at their

pose them carefully and look at their

pose them carefully and look at their look at their articulations in fact show

look at their articulations in fact show

look at their articulations in fact show a very horizontal neck and this was

a very horizontal neck and this was

a very horizontal neck and this was reconstructed correctly by some who

reconstructed correctly by some who

reconstructed correctly by some who actually had some scientists who

actually had some scientists who

actually had some scientists who actually had to reconstruct the bones in

actually had to reconstruct the bones in

actually had to reconstruct the bones in museums in fact you don’t see a curve

museums in fact you don’t see a curve

museums in fact you don’t see a curve like this maybe it could have taken that

like this maybe it could have taken that

like this maybe it could have taken that curve

curve

curve but you don’t see a curve like this and

but you don’t see a curve like this and

but you don’t see a curve like this and we don’t imagine it arising like this

we don’t imagine it arising like this

we don’t imagine it arising like this from the back and the other thing is at

from the back and the other thing is at

from the back and the other thing is at the head well the first time a good

the head well the first time a good

the head well the first time a good Diplodocus skull and an anterior part of

Diplodocus skull and an anterior part of

Diplodocus skull and an anterior part of the neck was found the scholar here in

the neck was found the scholar here in

the neck was found the scholar here in Washington said in nineteen in the

Washington said in nineteen in the

Washington said in nineteen in the 19-teens I can’t reconstruct the head

19-teens I can’t reconstruct the head

19-teens I can’t reconstruct the head pointing forward just like the problems

pointing forward just like the problems

pointing forward just like the problems we have with nature Soros

we have with nature Soros

we have with nature Soros he said the head had to be reconstructed

he said the head had to be reconstructed

he said the head had to be reconstructed tip down but we tend to forget these

tip down but we tend to forget these

tip down but we tend to forget these things because our model always tends to

things because our model always tends to

things because our model always tends to be mammals the animals were closest to

be mammals the animals were closest to

be mammals the animals were closest to in fact the other thing about an animal

in fact the other thing about an animal

in fact the other thing about an animal like a giraffe is that if it was eating

like a giraffe is that if it was eating

like a giraffe is that if it was eating up in the trees it tends to have a

up in the trees it tends to have a

up in the trees it tends to have a narrow muzzle mammal workers have known

narrow muzzle mammal workers have known

narrow muzzle mammal workers have known this for years you can go into the

this for years you can go into the

this for years you can go into the Serengeti lineup all the ungulates

Serengeti lineup all the ungulates

Serengeti lineup all the ungulates measure their snouts the ones that are

measure their snouts the ones that are

measure their snouts the ones that are abroad or eating grass the ones that are

abroad or eating grass the ones that are

abroad or eating grass the ones that are sort of in-between or eating some grass

sort of in-between or eating some grass

sort of in-between or eating some grass some leaves the ones that are narrow

some leaves the ones that are narrow

some leaves the ones that are narrow like this are always browsers you

like this are always browsers you

like this are always browsers you wouldn’t want a big muzzle you’re

wouldn’t want a big muzzle you’re

wouldn’t want a big muzzle you’re reaching in between the trees to get at

reaching in between the trees to get at

reaching in between the trees to get at leaves you want something that’s narrow

leaves you want something that’s narrow

leaves you want something that’s narrow neither Soros gave us all pause because

neither Soros gave us all pause because

neither Soros gave us all pause because there were so many constraints it was

there were so many constraints it was

there were so many constraints it was such an extreme dinosaur you couldn’t

such an extreme dinosaur you couldn’t

such an extreme dinosaur you couldn’t get its face any more forward than in

get its face any more forward than in

get its face any more forward than in the model outside about tipping 45

the model outside about tipping 45

the model outside about tipping 45 degrees you could not put the face

degrees you could not put the face

degrees you could not put the face pointing forwards otherwise the neck

pointing forwards otherwise the neck

pointing forwards otherwise the neck would have to come directly from

would have to come directly from

would have to come directly from underneath there’s absolutely no way

underneath there’s absolutely no way

underneath there’s absolutely no way then that could handle that position the

then that could handle that position the

then that could handle that position the ear region told us it’s now is pointed

ear region told us it’s now is pointed

ear region told us it’s now is pointed down it has a giant flat muzzle what

down it has a giant flat muzzle what

down it has a giant flat muzzle what could it be doing except cropping plants

could it be doing except cropping plants

could it be doing except cropping plants close to the ground that’s what we have

close to the ground that’s what we have

close to the ground that’s what we have to argue it was doing the problem is it

to argue it was doing the problem is it

to argue it was doing the problem is it has where facets on the teeth that

has where facets on the teeth that

has where facets on the teeth that closely resemble Diplodocus not only

closely resemble Diplodocus not only

closely resemble Diplodocus not only that here’s the front part of the jaws

that here’s the front part of the jaws

that here’s the front part of the jaws Diplodocus has the big front jaws

Diplodocus has the big front jaws

Diplodocus has the big front jaws Diplodocus has teeth that are almost all

Diplodocus has teeth that are almost all

Diplodocus has teeth that are almost all up front not all up front but almost all

up front not all up front but almost all

up front not all up front but almost all up front Diplodocus when you x-ray

up front Diplodocus when you x-ray

up front Diplodocus when you x-ray Diplodocus like we did has five or six

Diplodocus like we did has five or six

Diplodocus like we did has five or six teeth in a column in these innocent

teeth in a column in these innocent

teeth in a column in these innocent looking jaws in addition it’s your

looking jaws in addition it’s your

looking jaws in addition it’s your region says that this not this is the

region says that this not this is the

region says that this not this is the habitual posture of the skull it too had

habitual posture of the skull it too had

habitual posture of the skull it too had a downwardly down really directed snout

a downwardly down really directed snout

a downwardly down really directed snout as was reconstructed in the

as was reconstructed in the

as was reconstructed in the be part of this century so we’ve come to

be part of this century so we’ve come to

be part of this century so we’ve come to the conclusion that we really have

the conclusion that we really have

the conclusion that we really have missed the boat on some of these

missed the boat on some of these

missed the boat on some of these sauropods indeed there were large areas

sauropods indeed there were large areas

sauropods indeed there were large areas of land in the Upper Jurassic covered by

of land in the Upper Jurassic covered by

of land in the Upper Jurassic covered by ferns covered by horse tails covered by

ferns covered by horse tails covered by

ferns covered by horse tails covered by Lika pods other kinds of plants by

Lika pods other kinds of plants by

Lika pods other kinds of plants by nature sources day it’s entirely

nature sources day it’s entirely

nature sources day it’s entirely possible that some angiosperm has

possible that some angiosperm has

possible that some angiosperm has angiosperms that come into play and that

angiosperms that come into play and that

angiosperms that come into play and that these dinosaurs were actually browsing

these dinosaurs were actually browsing

these dinosaurs were actually browsing near ground level so here’s a picture of

near ground level so here’s a picture of

near ground level so here’s a picture of this is the first time that we’ve you

this is the first time that we’ve you

this is the first time that we’ve you know been able to cat scan and

know been able to cat scan and

know been able to cat scan and reconstruct the brain a variety of

reconstruct the brain a variety of

reconstruct the brain a variety of dinosaurs and look at an evolutionary

dinosaurs and look at an evolutionary

dinosaurs and look at an evolutionary transformation here’s the brains of all

transformation here’s the brains of all

transformation here’s the brains of all these dinosaurs this is a SPRO sauropod

these dinosaurs this is a SPRO sauropod

these dinosaurs this is a SPRO sauropod or early sauropod a morph

or early sauropod a morph

or early sauropod a morph it’s from where a closely related an

it’s from where a closely related an

it’s from where a closely related an ancient group that the sauropods came

ancient group that the sauropods came

ancient group that the sauropods came from and here there’s a horizontal canal

from and here there’s a horizontal canal

from and here there’s a horizontal canal this is Camarasaurus this is Diplodocus

this is Camarasaurus this is Diplodocus

this is Camarasaurus this is Diplodocus and here’s Nijo source and you can see

and here’s Nijo source and you can see

and here’s Nijo source and you can see how the snout slowly moves down while we

how the snout slowly moves down while we

how the snout slowly moves down while we hold the brain in a constant position

hold the brain in a constant position

hold the brain in a constant position there really was the evolution of the

there really was the evolution of the

there really was the evolution of the down turning of the snout in the dipwad

down turning of the snout in the dipwad

down turning of the snout in the dipwad acids at the same time the snout was

acids at the same time the snout was

acids at the same time the snout was becoming square at the same time that

becoming square at the same time that

becoming square at the same time that tooth replacement was being increased

tooth replacement was being increased

tooth replacement was being increased against the wear that was occurring on

against the wear that was occurring on

against the wear that was occurring on them so maybe it wasn’t monkey puzzle

them so maybe it wasn’t monkey puzzle

them so maybe it wasn’t monkey puzzle trees the counter furs that were common

trees the counter furs that were common

trees the counter furs that were common that we have a big chunk of outside we

that we have a big chunk of outside we

that we have a big chunk of outside we didn’t find them it needs your soros

didn’t find them it needs your soros

didn’t find them it needs your soros that’s all the plant remains you

that’s all the plant remains you

that’s all the plant remains you typically find in the field unless you

typically find in the field unless you

typically find in the field unless you can get pollen and we couldn’t so far

can get pollen and we couldn’t so far

can get pollen and we couldn’t so far get any pollen you’re left with the big

get any pollen you’re left with the big

get any pollen you’re left with the big trunks of these aracari and conifer

trunks of these aracari and conifer

trunks of these aracari and conifer trees there’s a 300-pounder outside for

trees there’s a 300-pounder outside for

trees there’s a 300-pounder outside for you to take a look at those are very

you to take a look at those are very

you to take a look at those are very useful you can cut them and slice them

useful you can cut them and slice them

useful you can cut them and slice them look at them under the microscope and

look at them under the microscope and

look at them under the microscope and tell all sorts of things about the

tell all sorts of things about the

tell all sorts of things about the climate and how lovely it was during

climate and how lovely it was during

climate and how lovely it was during these are sources day but did neater

these are sources day but did neater

these are sources day but did neater source really eat the leaves of these

source really eat the leaves of these

source really eat the leaves of these plants the jaw to me how weak it was in

plants the jaw to me how weak it was in

plants the jaw to me how weak it was in terms of its construction how wide it

terms of its construction how wide it

terms of its construction how wide it was in terms of what it was cutting and

was in terms of what it was cutting and

was in terms of what it was cutting and the orientation of the skull say no it

the orientation of the skull say no it

the orientation of the skull say no it was the ground level browser and that

was the ground level browser and that

was the ground level browser and that ground level browser so extreme has

ground level browser so extreme has

ground level browser so extreme has opened my mind to viewing other dipwad

opened my mind to viewing other dipwad

opened my mind to viewing other dipwad assets also as ground browsers ground

assets also as ground browsers ground

assets also as ground browsers ground level browsers the cows of the Mesozoic

level browsers the cows of the Mesozoic

level browsers the cows of the Mesozoic if you will so here’s a firm

if you will so here’s a firm

if you will so here’s a firm it was a common plant all through the

it was a common plant all through the

it was a common plant all through the early part of the Mesozoic here’s a

early part of the Mesozoic here’s a

early part of the Mesozoic here’s a horse tail these are common today they

horse tail these are common today they

horse tail these are common today they grow everywhere from the Arctic down to

grow everywhere from the Arctic down to

grow everywhere from the Arctic down to my garden in Chicago

my garden in Chicago

my garden in Chicago they’re called scouring rushes because

they’re called scouring rushes because

they’re called scouring rushes because you can actually scour plants there’s so

you can actually scour plants there’s so

you can actually scour plants there’s so much phytolith in there the outside

much phytolith in there the outside

much phytolith in there the outside levels of their of their structure that

levels of their of their structure that

levels of their of their structure that they they really are very abrasive and

they they really are very abrasive and

they they really are very abrasive and in the Mesozoic it’s not well studied

in the Mesozoic it’s not well studied

in the Mesozoic it’s not well studied some of them were less abrasive some of

some of them were less abrasive some of

some of them were less abrasive some of them more it’s not really well studied

them more it’s not really well studied

them more it’s not really well studied but maybe that was what was abrading the

but maybe that was what was abrading the

but maybe that was what was abrading the teeth at such a rate and then of course

teeth at such a rate and then of course

teeth at such a rate and then of course around the that you see around this

around the that you see around this

around the that you see around this plant here you see some of the

plant here you see some of the

plant here you see some of the angiosperms that were coming into

angiosperms that were coming into

angiosperms that were coming into disturbed environments maybe along the

disturbed environments maybe along the

disturbed environments maybe along the Riverways but for knees are sorts again

Riverways but for knees are sorts again

Riverways but for knees are sorts again you have to ask yourself this is a

you have to ask yourself this is a

you have to ask yourself this is a common dinosaur whatever food it was

common dinosaur whatever food it was

common dinosaur whatever food it was accessing it had to been common and then

accessing it had to been common and then

accessing it had to been common and then it had relatives like Diplodocus living

it had relatives like Diplodocus living

it had relatives like Diplodocus living in arid environments so I think we may

in arid environments so I think we may

in arid environments so I think we may have to reinterpret how these dinosaurs

have to reinterpret how these dinosaurs

have to reinterpret how these dinosaurs were making a living now there are

were making a living now there are

were making a living now there are certain areas that dinosaurs never

certain areas that dinosaurs never

certain areas that dinosaurs never adapted to one of those is an aquatic

adapted to one of those is an aquatic

adapted to one of those is an aquatic lifestyle no dinosaur has ever really

lifestyle no dinosaur has ever really

lifestyle no dinosaur has ever really got a fin a tail fin or anything like

got a fin a tail fin or anything like

got a fin a tail fin or anything like that

that

that and yet this is an animal the only

and yet this is an animal the only

and yet this is an animal the only mammal that we know of that actually

mammal that we know of that actually

mammal that we know of that actually grazes underwater one of the questions

grazes underwater one of the questions

grazes underwater one of the questions with neosaurus is could it be eating

with neosaurus is could it be eating

with neosaurus is could it be eating aquatic plants

aquatic plants

aquatic plants well we have one grazer of grass under

well we have one grazer of grass under

well we have one grazer of grass under water and this is what it looks like and

water and this is what it looks like and

water and this is what it looks like and it to me it it bears a remote

it to me it it bears a remote

it to me it it bears a remote resemblance to knees your source but it

resemblance to knees your source but it

resemblance to knees your source but it doesn’t have teeth at all that resemble

doesn’t have teeth at all that resemble

doesn’t have teeth at all that resemble anything like nezer Saurus and there’s

anything like nezer Saurus and there’s

anything like nezer Saurus and there’s other environments that we are just

other environments that we are just

other environments that we are just learning now that some dinosaur is

learning now that some dinosaur is

learning now that some dinosaur is invaded that we had previously never

invaded that we had previously never

invaded that we had previously never thought house dinosaurs burrowing habits

thought house dinosaurs burrowing habits

thought house dinosaurs burrowing habits this is of course as an armadillo we

this is of course as an armadillo we

this is of course as an armadillo we just described a burrowing dinosaur and

just described a burrowing dinosaur and

just described a burrowing dinosaur and I think we found another one in Africa

I think we found another one in Africa

I think we found another one in Africa that we’re going to announce soon it’s

that we’re going to announce soon it’s

that we’re going to announce soon it’s got arms that are stubby it has legs

got arms that are stubby it has legs

got arms that are stubby it has legs that can run there’s nothing quite like

that can run there’s nothing quite like

that can run there’s nothing quite like it alive today there’s nothing that

it alive today there’s nothing that

it alive today there’s nothing that burrows that runs as fast as a zebra

burrows that runs as fast as a zebra

burrows that runs as fast as a zebra there’s nothing because the burrowers

there’s nothing because the burrowers

there’s nothing because the burrowers today and in fact all mammals came from

today and in fact all mammals came from

today and in fact all mammals came from a quadrupedal heritage of four-legged

a quadrupedal heritage of four-legged

a quadrupedal heritage of four-legged heritage

heritage

heritage dinosaurs even sauropods come from a

dinosaurs even sauropods come from a

dinosaurs even sauropods come from a bipedal heritage we are very unusual

bipedal heritage we are very unusual

bipedal heritage we are very unusual among mammals in walking on two legs

among mammals in walking on two legs

among mammals in walking on two legs it’s a very late feature in the course

it’s a very late feature in the course

it’s a very late feature in the course of our evolution so when you go outside

of our evolution so when you go outside

of our evolution so when you go outside you look at nature store as you say it’s

you look at nature store as you say it’s

you look at nature store as you say it’s four-legged yes it is but it returned to

four-legged yes it is but it returned to

four-legged yes it is but it returned to four legs and its past as a two-legged

four legs and its past as a two-legged

four legs and its past as a two-legged animal it never left far behind look at

animal it never left far behind look at

animal it never left far behind look at the size of the hind limbs relative to

the size of the hind limbs relative to

the size of the hind limbs relative to the four limbs it once was in the very

the four limbs it once was in the very

the four limbs it once was in the very distant past and its lineage a bipedal

distant past and its lineage a bipedal

distant past and its lineage a bipedal animal so when you devise a way to

animal so when you devise a way to

animal so when you devise a way to burrow and make a living they’re doing

burrow and make a living they’re doing

burrow and make a living they’re doing it with their hands but they’re

it with their hands but they’re

it with their hands but they’re retaining the ability to run fast with

retaining the ability to run fast with

retaining the ability to run fast with their legs it’s sort of like a burrowing

their legs it’s sort of like a burrowing

their legs it’s sort of like a burrowing ostrich I mean it’s just a really an

ostrich I mean it’s just a really an

ostrich I mean it’s just a really an incredible kind of animal in the trees

incredible kind of animal in the trees

incredible kind of animal in the trees well not too many but we’re now getting

well not too many but we’re now getting

well not too many but we’re now getting a few dinosaurs that we think actually

a few dinosaurs that we think actually

a few dinosaurs that we think actually were are boiled before the bird

were are boiled before the bird

were are boiled before the bird radiation appeared to occupy those

radiation appeared to occupy those

radiation appeared to occupy those niches but we must admit that in the

niches but we must admit that in the

niches but we must admit that in the trees in burrows and in the water

trees in burrows and in the water

trees in burrows and in the water dinosaurs had but a precarious existence

dinosaurs had but a precarious existence

dinosaurs had but a precarious existence so there are areas that dinosaurs didn’t

so there are areas that dinosaurs didn’t

so there are areas that dinosaurs didn’t excel at particularly well but we hope

excel at particularly well but we hope

excel at particularly well but we hope that we have at least at least revealed

that we have at least at least revealed

that we have at least at least revealed some of the mysteries of an extreme

some of the mysteries of an extreme

some of the mysteries of an extreme dinosaur because an extreme dinosaur

dinosaur because an extreme dinosaur

dinosaur because an extreme dinosaur like major stores quite frankly gives

like major stores quite frankly gives

like major stores quite frankly gives you clues as to what many of its kin

you clues as to what many of its kin

you clues as to what many of its kin might have been doing sometimes it takes

might have been doing sometimes it takes

might have been doing sometimes it takes an extreme dinosaur to do that thank you

an extreme dinosaur to do that thank you

an extreme dinosaur to do that thank you very much take questions