your understanding of the world around you and everyone in it depends on your
you and everyone in it depends on your
you and everyone in it depends on your imagination of how it could be different
the imagination is one of the last
the imagination is one of the last uncharted terrains of the human mind
uncharted terrains of the human mind
uncharted terrains of the human mind there’s still a lot we don’t know about
there’s still a lot we don’t know about
there’s still a lot we don’t know about yet we know that people can create
yet we know that people can create
yet we know that people can create alternatives to reality we all know that
alternatives to reality we all know that
alternatives to reality we all know that alternatives to reality are intriguing
alternatives to reality are intriguing
alternatives to reality are intriguing in art in literature and theater in
in art in literature and theater in
in art in literature and theater in cinema alternatives to reality entertain
cinema alternatives to reality entertain
cinema alternatives to reality entertain us but recent discoveries in cognitive
us but recent discoveries in cognitive
us but recent discoveries in cognitive science research about the human
science research about the human
science research about the human imagination are surprising and one of
imagination are surprising and one of
imagination are surprising and one of the big surprises is that the
the big surprises is that the
the big surprises is that the imagination isn’t just for entertainment
imagination isn’t just for entertainment
imagination isn’t just for entertainment the imagination carries out some of the
the imagination carries out some of the
the imagination carries out some of the most serious work of the human mind we
most serious work of the human mind we
most serious work of the human mind we all create alternatives to reality very
all create alternatives to reality very
all create alternatives to reality very often in our everyday lives we imagine
often in our everyday lives we imagine
often in our everyday lives we imagine how things could have turned out
how things could have turned out
how things could have turned out differently if only especially after bad
differently if only especially after bad
differently if only especially after bad things happen like a car accident we
things happen like a car accident we
things happen like a car accident we create alternatives to reality to
create alternatives to reality to
create alternatives to reality to explain the past we can think about the
explain the past we can think about the
explain the past we can think about the events that occurred before a bad
events that occurred before a bad
events that occurred before a bad outcome and we can work out the causes
outcome and we can work out the causes
outcome and we can work out the causes between those events and the bad outcome
between those events and the bad outcome
between those events and the bad outcome we can imagine that if one of those
we can imagine that if one of those
we can imagine that if one of those things hadn’t happened the bad outcome
things hadn’t happened the bad outcome
things hadn’t happened the bad outcome wouldn’t have happened either we create
wouldn’t have happened either we create
wouldn’t have happened either we create alternatives to reality also to prepare
alternatives to reality also to prepare
alternatives to reality also to prepare for the future we make better decisions
for the future we make better decisions
for the future we make better decisions we learn from our mistakes how to
we learn from our mistakes how to
we learn from our mistakes how to prevent bad things from happening again
prevent bad things from happening again
prevent bad things from happening again because we can imagine alternatives and
because we can imagine alternatives and
because we can imagine alternatives and those imagined alternatives give rise to
those imagined alternatives give rise to
those imagined alternatives give rise to various emotional experiences we
various emotional experiences we
various emotional experiences we experience regret and guilt and hope and
experience regret and guilt and hope and
experience regret and guilt and hope and relief because we think about the way a
relief because we think about the way a
relief because we think about the way a situation turned out we imagine how
situation turned out we imagine how
situation turned out we imagine how turned out differently and in the
turned out differently and in the
turned out differently and in the comparison of the two the emotion
comparison of the two the emotion
comparison of the two the emotion emerges these imagined alternatives to
emerges these imagined alternatives to
emerges these imagined alternatives to reality also give rise to our moral and
reality also give rise to our moral and
reality also give rise to our moral and legal judgments and decisions we
legal judgments and decisions we
legal judgments and decisions we allocate blame and fault and
allocate blame and fault and
allocate blame and fault and responsibility because we can think
responsibility because we can think
responsibility because we can think about not only what someone could have
about not only what someone could have
about not only what someone could have done differently but also what they
done differently but also what they
done differently but also what they should have done differently and when we
should have done differently and when we
should have done differently and when we lose the ability to imagine alternatives
lose the ability to imagine alternatives
lose the ability to imagine alternatives to reality that is devastating for us
to reality that is devastating for us
to reality that is devastating for us individuals who acquire brain injuries
individuals who acquire brain injuries
individuals who acquire brain injuries particularly to the prefrontal cortex
particularly to the prefrontal cortex
particularly to the prefrontal cortex sometimes unfortunately lose the
sometimes unfortunately lose the
sometimes unfortunately lose the capacity to spontaneously imagine how
capacity to spontaneously imagine how
capacity to spontaneously imagine how things could have turned out differently
things could have turned out differently
things could have turned out differently and they have difficulty in making
and they have difficulty in making
and they have difficulty in making decisions in learning from mistakes and
decisions in learning from mistakes and
decisions in learning from mistakes and an allocating blame and fault
an allocating blame and fault
an allocating blame and fault appropriately so these are all examples
appropriately so these are all examples
appropriately so these are all examples of some of the very serious and
of some of the very serious and
of some of the very serious and important work that the human
important work that the human
important work that the human imagination does for the mind but
imagination does for the mind but
imagination does for the mind but there’s one other thing that we all need
there’s one other thing that we all need
there’s one other thing that we all need to be able to do that we depend on our
to be able to do that we depend on our
to be able to do that we depend on our imaginations for we all need to be able
imaginations for we all need to be able
imaginations for we all need to be able to work out what’s in someone else’s
to work out what’s in someone else’s
to work out what’s in someone else’s head we need to be able to figure out
head we need to be able to figure out
head we need to be able to figure out what other people are thinking but
what other people are thinking but
what other people are thinking but taking someone else’s perspective is
taking someone else’s perspective is
taking someone else’s perspective is really difficult it’s not something that
really difficult it’s not something that
really difficult it’s not something that we’re born with young children can’t do
we’re born with young children can’t do
we’re born with young children can’t do it it has to develop over the course of
it it has to develop over the course of
it it has to develop over the course of childhood by the age of 4 to 5 years
childhood by the age of 4 to 5 years
childhood by the age of 4 to 5 years young children begin to appreciate that
young children begin to appreciate that
young children begin to appreciate that other people may have a different
other people may have a different
other people may have a different understanding of the world from them
understanding of the world from them
understanding of the world from them they begin to get that their friend may
they begin to get that their friend may
they begin to get that their friend may have a mistaken belief about where
have a mistaken belief about where
have a mistaken belief about where objects are or what objects are made of
objects are or what objects are made of
objects are or what objects are made of by the age of 7 to 8 years young
by the age of 7 to 8 years young
by the age of 7 to 8 years young children begin to appreciate that others
children begin to appreciate that others
children begin to appreciate that others might have a different understanding not
might have a different understanding not
might have a different understanding not just of the physic
just of the physic
just of the physic world but also of the mental world they
world but also of the mental world they
world but also of the mental world they begin to get that their friend might
begin to get that their friend might
begin to get that their friend might have mistaken beliefs about what someone
have mistaken beliefs about what someone
have mistaken beliefs about what someone else’s thinking about what’s the reasons
else’s thinking about what’s the reasons
else’s thinking about what’s the reasons for their actions about what’s going on
for their actions about what’s going on
for their actions about what’s going on in their minds and that ability to
in their minds and that ability to
in their minds and that ability to mind-read to work out what’s in someone
mind-read to work out what’s in someone
mind-read to work out what’s in someone else’s head depends on our ability to
else’s head depends on our ability to
else’s head depends on our ability to imagine alternatives to reality as we
imagine alternatives to reality as we
imagine alternatives to reality as we understand it here’s one example of that
understand it here’s one example of that
understand it here’s one example of that we invited young children to listen to
we invited young children to listen to
we invited young children to listen to stories they listened to them over
stories they listened to them over
stories they listened to them over earphones and they saw pictures
earphones and they saw pictures
earphones and they saw pictures corresponding to them on screen they
corresponding to them on screen they
corresponding to them on screen they heard lots of different stories about
heard lots of different stories about
heard lots of different stories about lots of different everyday events here’s
lots of different everyday events here’s
lots of different everyday events here’s one example they looked at pictures and
one example they looked at pictures and
one example they looked at pictures and we’re told in the bedroom John sees and
we’re told in the bedroom John sees and
we’re told in the bedroom John sees and picking up toys she says she wants to
picking up toys she says she wants to
picking up toys she says she wants to find her ball to play with it
find her ball to play with it
find her ball to play with it John goes into the kitchen while he’s
John goes into the kitchen while he’s
John goes into the kitchen while he’s away Ann’s mother tells her to tidy her
away Ann’s mother tells her to tidy her
away Ann’s mother tells her to tidy her room when John comes back he sees an
room when John comes back he sees an
room when John comes back he sees an picking up toys we asked children a
picking up toys we asked children a
picking up toys we asked children a question about an imagined alternative
question about an imagined alternative
question about an imagined alternative to reality if Ann’s mother hadn’t told
to reality if Ann’s mother hadn’t told
to reality if Ann’s mother hadn’t told her to tidy her room what would have
her to tidy her room what would have
her to tidy her room what would have been the reason that she was picking up
been the reason that she was picking up
been the reason that she was picking up toys we also asked them a question about
toys we also asked them a question about
toys we also asked them a question about mind-reading we asked them what will
mind-reading we asked them what will
mind-reading we asked them what will John believe is the reason that Ann is
John believe is the reason that Ann is
John believe is the reason that Ann is picking up toys here’s how they managed
picking up toys here’s how they managed
picking up toys here’s how they managed with the imagination questions what
with the imagination questions what
with the imagination questions what would have been the reason if her mother
would have been the reason if her mother
would have been the reason if her mother hadn’t told her to pick up toys you can
hadn’t told her to pick up toys you can
hadn’t told her to pick up toys you can see that the young children at 6 years
see that the young children at 6 years
see that the young children at 6 years of age have real difficulty answering
of age have real difficulty answering
of age have real difficulty answering imagination questions correctly by eight
imagination questions correctly by eight
imagination questions correctly by eight years of age they’re much better at it
years of age they’re much better at it
years of age they’re much better at it and on a 10 that there are
and on a 10 that there are
and on a 10 that there are perfect here’s how they fare on the
perfect here’s how they fare on the
perfect here’s how they fare on the mind-reading questions what will John
mind-reading questions what will John
mind-reading questions what will John believe is the reason that Ann’s picking
believe is the reason that Ann’s picking
believe is the reason that Ann’s picking up toys you can see again that the six
up toys you can see again that the six
up toys you can see again that the six year olds are having real difficulty
year olds are having real difficulty
year olds are having real difficulty answering mind-reading questions
answering mind-reading questions
answering mind-reading questions correctly and you can also see that
correctly and you can also see that
correctly and you can also see that they’re having more difficulty with the
they’re having more difficulty with the
they’re having more difficulty with the mind-reading questions than with the
mind-reading questions than with the
mind-reading questions than with the imagination questions children’s
imagination questions children’s
imagination questions children’s imagination skills develop before their
imagination skills develop before their
imagination skills develop before their mind reading skills the two are really
mind reading skills the two are really
mind reading skills the two are really very closely correlated children
very closely correlated children
very closely correlated children generally will answer both sorts of
generally will answer both sorts of
generally will answer both sorts of questions correctly or they’ll get
questions correctly or they’ll get
questions correctly or they’ll get neither sort of question correct in the
neither sort of question correct in the
neither sort of question correct in the transition period we sometimes see
transition period we sometimes see
transition period we sometimes see children who are able to answer
children who are able to answer
children who are able to answer imagination questions and not able to
imagination questions and not able to
imagination questions and not able to answer the mind-reading questions but we
answer the mind-reading questions but we
answer the mind-reading questions but we just don’t tend to see children who can
just don’t tend to see children who can
just don’t tend to see children who can answer mind-reading questions so they
answer mind-reading questions so they
answer mind-reading questions so they can take someone else’s perspective but
can take someone else’s perspective but
can take someone else’s perspective but they can’t answer the imagination
they can’t answer the imagination
they can’t answer the imagination questions they can’t imagine how things
questions they can’t imagine how things
questions they can’t imagine how things could have turned out differently and if
could have turned out differently and if
could have turned out differently and if the development of those imagination
the development of those imagination
the development of those imagination skills is delayed for one reason or
skills is delayed for one reason or
skills is delayed for one reason or another then so too is the development
another then so too is the development
another then so too is the development of mind reading skills that happens with
of mind reading skills that happens with
of mind reading skills that happens with children with autistic spectrum disorder
children with autistic spectrum disorder
children with autistic spectrum disorder so here’s how children with
so here’s how children with
so here’s how children with high-functioning autism and Asperger’s
high-functioning autism and Asperger’s
high-functioning autism and Asperger’s syndrome fared when we asked them the
syndrome fared when we asked them the
syndrome fared when we asked them the imagination question if Anne’s mother
imagination question if Anne’s mother
imagination question if Anne’s mother hadn’t told her to tidy a room what
hadn’t told her to tidy a room what
hadn’t told her to tidy a room what would have been the reason she was
would have been the reason she was
would have been the reason she was picking up toys you can see that the
picking up toys you can see that the
picking up toys you can see that the six-year-olds have real difficulty with
six-year-olds have real difficulty with
six-year-olds have real difficulty with this question but you can also see now
this question but you can also see now
this question but you can also see now that the eight-year-olds are having
that the eight-year-olds are having
that the eight-year-olds are having difficulty with this question
difficulty with this question
difficulty with this question unlike the typically developing children
unlike the typically developing children
unlike the typically developing children here’s how they fare with the
here’s how they fare with the
here’s how they fare with the mind-reading question again you can see
mind-reading question again you can see
mind-reading question again you can see that the six-year-olds are having
that the six-year-olds are having
that the six-year-olds are having difficulty with it and at 8 years
difficulty with it and at 8 years
difficulty with it and at 8 years they’re having difficulty with it again
they’re having difficulty with it again
they’re having difficulty with it again unlike the typically-developing show
unlike the typically-developing show
unlike the typically-developing show and you can also see that once again
and you can also see that once again
and you can also see that once again their imagination outstrips their mind
their imagination outstrips their mind
their imagination outstrips their mind reading skill and importantly you can
reading skill and importantly you can
reading skill and importantly you can also see that by 10 years of age they’re
also see that by 10 years of age they’re
also see that by 10 years of age they’re beginning to get good at both this is
beginning to get good at both this is
beginning to get good at both this is the developmental delay but otherwise
the developmental delay but otherwise
the developmental delay but otherwise the shape of the development of their
the shape of the development of their
the shape of the development of their imagination and mind-reading skills is
imagination and mind-reading skills is
imagination and mind-reading skills is the same as for children who are
the same as for children who are
the same as for children who are developing typically so this is one
developing typically so this is one
developing typically so this is one example of the very serious work that
example of the very serious work that
example of the very serious work that the imagination does the mind it enables
the imagination does the mind it enables
the imagination does the mind it enables us to take someone else’s perspective to
us to take someone else’s perspective to
us to take someone else’s perspective to work out what other people are thinking
work out what other people are thinking
work out what other people are thinking because we can imagine alternatives to
because we can imagine alternatives to
because we can imagine alternatives to reality as we understand it now there’s
reality as we understand it now there’s
reality as we understand it now there’s a profound consequence of these
a profound consequence of these
a profound consequence of these discoveries in cognitive science that
discoveries in cognitive science that
discoveries in cognitive science that the imagination does serious work and
the imagination does serious work and
the imagination does serious work and that consequence is that imagination and
that consequence is that imagination and
that consequence is that imagination and reason are not opposites creativity and
reason are not opposites creativity and
reason are not opposites creativity and logic are not in conflict instead it
logic are not in conflict instead it
logic are not in conflict instead it seems to be the case than imagination
seems to be the case than imagination
seems to be the case than imagination and rationality rely on the same sorts
and rationality rely on the same sorts
and rationality rely on the same sorts of computations within the human mind
of computations within the human mind
of computations within the human mind let me give you an example of that we
let me give you an example of that we
let me give you an example of that we all have difficulties with certain
all have difficulties with certain
all have difficulties with certain logical inferences so suppose a friend
logical inferences so suppose a friend
logical inferences so suppose a friend of yours is describing the contents of a
of yours is describing the contents of a
of yours is describing the contents of a nearby shop and says something about
nearby shop and says something about
nearby shop and says something about what’s possibly there if there are
what’s possibly there if there are
what’s possibly there if there are oranges there are pears and then suppose
oranges there are pears and then suppose
oranges there are pears and then suppose subsequently you discovered that in fact
subsequently you discovered that in fact
subsequently you discovered that in fact there are no prayers in that shop how
there are no prayers in that shop how
there are no prayers in that shop how can you and fair most people who we
can you and fair most people who we
can you and fair most people who we asked say that they can unfair that
asked say that they can unfair that
asked say that they can unfair that there are no oranges about half of the
there are no oranges about half of the
there are no oranges about half of the people we ask will make that inference
people we ask will make that inference
people we ask will make that inference but the other half of people who we
but the other half of people who we
but the other half of people who we asked to make this inference will say
asked to make this inference will say
asked to make this inference will say that they can’t infer anything about
that they can’t infer anything about
that they can’t infer anything about whether there are oranges or no oranges
whether there are oranges or no oranges
whether there are oranges or no oranges the difficulty with this inference seems
the difficulty with this inference seems
the difficulty with this inference seems to arise because people have
to arise because people have
to arise because people have working memories and so we tend to
working memories and so we tend to
working memories and so we tend to construct just a single mental model
construct just a single mental model
construct just a single mental model corresponding to what has been described
corresponding to what has been described
corresponding to what has been described to us in conversation so we tend to
to us in conversation so we tend to
to us in conversation so we tend to think just about the oranges and pears
think just about the oranges and pears
think just about the oranges and pears we don’t think about any other
we don’t think about any other
we don’t think about any other possibility that all changes when our
possibility that all changes when our
possibility that all changes when our imagination is engaged so if your friend
imagination is engaged so if your friend
imagination is engaged so if your friend and they were describing what might be
and they were describing what might be
and they were describing what might be in the nearby shop had instead said
in the nearby shop had instead said
in the nearby shop had instead said something about an alternative to
something about an alternative to
something about an alternative to reality and it said if there had been
reality and it said if there had been
reality and it said if there had been oranges there would have been pears now
oranges there would have been pears now
oranges there would have been pears now when you’re told that there are no pairs
when you’re told that there are no pairs
when you’re told that there are no pairs in the shop everyone we ask says very
in the shop everyone we ask says very
in the shop everyone we ask says very readily that there are no oranges that
readily that there are no oranges that
readily that there are no oranges that inference seems to be very easy to make
inference seems to be very easy to make
inference seems to be very easy to make when it’s couched in terms of
when it’s couched in terms of
when it’s couched in terms of alternatives to reality our imagination
alternatives to reality our imagination
alternatives to reality our imagination allows us to overcome the limitations in
allows us to overcome the limitations in
allows us to overcome the limitations in our working memory it allows us to
our working memory it allows us to
our working memory it allows us to envisage multiple alternatives
envisage multiple alternatives
envisage multiple alternatives simultaneously so we are able to think
simultaneously so we are able to think
simultaneously so we are able to think about reality and an alternative to
about reality and an alternative to
about reality and an alternative to reality at the same time now one way to
reality at the same time now one way to
reality at the same time now one way to examine that is to simply look at where
examine that is to simply look at where
examine that is to simply look at where people look when they listen to stories
people look when they listen to stories
people look when they listen to stories that include something about an
that include something about an
that include something about an alternative to reality so we asked
alternative to reality so we asked
alternative to reality so we asked adults to listen to simple stories about
adults to listen to simple stories about
adults to listen to simple stories about lots of different everyday events they
lots of different everyday events they
lots of different everyday events they listen to the stories over earphones and
listen to the stories over earphones and
listen to the stories over earphones and they saw on-screen very simple visual
they saw on-screen very simple visual
they saw on-screen very simple visual displays and tiny cameras recorded very
displays and tiny cameras recorded very
displays and tiny cameras recorded very precisely where their eyes moved in
precisely where their eyes moved in
precisely where their eyes moved in those visual displays so that we could
those visual displays so that we could
those visual displays so that we could see what people are looking at and
see what people are looking at and
see what people are looking at and figure out what they’re thinking about
figure out what they’re thinking about
figure out what they’re thinking about as they’re hearing about an alternative
as they’re hearing about an alternative
as they’re hearing about an alternative to reality so in the course of these
to reality so in the course of these
to reality so in the course of these stories they’d hear something about a
stories they’d hear something about a
stories they’d hear something about a possibility like if there are oranges
possibility like if there are oranges
possibility like if there are oranges there are pears and they’d see an array
there are pears and they’d see an array
there are pears and they’d see an array a visual
a visual
a visual of simple images like an orange and a
of simple images like an orange and a
of simple images like an orange and a pear an orange and a pair with a cross
pear an orange and a pair with a cross
pear an orange and a pair with a cross strike through an image of an apple and
strike through an image of an apple and
strike through an image of an apple and a strawberry and an image of no apple
a strawberry and an image of no apple
a strawberry and an image of no apple and no strawberry and here’s what they
and no strawberry and here’s what they
and no strawberry and here’s what they look at when they’re listening to the
look at when they’re listening to the
look at when they’re listening to the possibility if there are oranges there
possibility if there are oranges there
possibility if there are oranges there are pears they start out looking at all
are pears they start out looking at all
are pears they start out looking at all of the four images but very rapidly
of the four images but very rapidly
of the four images but very rapidly within a matter of milliseconds as they
within a matter of milliseconds as they
within a matter of milliseconds as they hear about the possibility if there are
hear about the possibility if there are
hear about the possibility if there are oranges there are pears their eyes move
oranges there are pears their eyes move
oranges there are pears their eyes move to the image of the orange and the pear
to the image of the orange and the pear
to the image of the orange and the pear and stay focused on last through edge
and stay focused on last through edge
and stay focused on last through edge their eyes don’t move to the other three
their eyes don’t move to the other three
their eyes don’t move to the other three images you see a very different picture
images you see a very different picture
images you see a very different picture when instead the story contains a
when instead the story contains a
when instead the story contains a reference to an alternative to reality
reference to an alternative to reality
reference to an alternative to reality if instead they heard if there had been
if instead they heard if there had been
if instead they heard if there had been oranges there would have been pears now
oranges there would have been pears now
oranges there would have been pears now what you see is once again they start
what you see is once again they start
what you see is once again they start out looking at all four images but they
out looking at all four images but they
out looking at all four images but they begin their eyes move to the image of
begin their eyes move to the image of
begin their eyes move to the image of the orange and the pear and the image of
the orange and the pear and the image of
the orange and the pear and the image of no orange and no pear and their eyes
no orange and no pear and their eyes
no orange and no pear and their eyes stay focused on those two images and
stay focused on those two images and
stay focused on those two images and they don’t pay attention to the other
they don’t pay attention to the other
they don’t pay attention to the other two images throughout hearing about that
two images throughout hearing about that
two images throughout hearing about that alternative to reality and so this is an
alternative to reality and so this is an
alternative to reality and so this is an example of how our imagination seems to
example of how our imagination seems to
example of how our imagination seems to allow us to keep multiple alternatives
allow us to keep multiple alternatives
allow us to keep multiple alternatives in mind it allows us to overcome our
in mind it allows us to overcome our
in mind it allows us to overcome our working memory limitations and it’s in
working memory limitations and it’s in
working memory limitations and it’s in that way that the imagination helps us
that way that the imagination helps us
that way that the imagination helps us to reason and these are some of the
to reason and these are some of the
to reason and these are some of the reasons why cognitive scientists are now
reasons why cognitive scientists are now
reasons why cognitive scientists are now beginning to conclude that the
beginning to conclude that the
beginning to conclude that the imagination far from being an optional
imagination far from being an optional
imagination far from being an optional extra for our amusement is in fact at
extra for our amusement is in fact at
extra for our amusement is in fact at the very core of our cognition so next
the very core of our cognition so next
the very core of our cognition so next time you want to understand something
time you want to understand something
time you want to understand something the world around you or the people in it
the world around you or the people in it
the world around you or the people in it try creating an alternative to reality
try creating an alternative to reality
try creating an alternative to reality i imagining how things could have been
i imagining how things could have been
i imagining how things could have been different
different
different use your imagination it’s more useful
use your imagination it’s more useful
use your imagination it’s more useful than you may think
”
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