[Music] I could fit all movies ever made inside
I could fit all movies ever made inside
I could fit all movies ever made inside of this tube if you can’t see it that’s
of this tube if you can’t see it that’s
of this tube if you can’t see it that’s kind of the point
kind of the point
kind of the point before we understand how this is
before we understand how this is
before we understand how this is possible it’s important to understand
possible it’s important to understand
possible it’s important to understand the value of this feat all of our
the value of this feat all of our
the value of this feat all of our thoughts and actions these days through
thoughts and actions these days through
thoughts and actions these days through photos and videos even our fitness
photos and videos even our fitness
photos and videos even our fitness activities are stored as digital data
activities are stored as digital data
activities are stored as digital data aside from running out of space on our
aside from running out of space on our
aside from running out of space on our phones we rarely think about our digital
phones we rarely think about our digital
phones we rarely think about our digital footprint but humanity has collectively
footprint but humanity has collectively
footprint but humanity has collectively generated more data in the last few
generated more data in the last few
generated more data in the last few years than all of preceding human
years than all of preceding human
years than all of preceding human history big data has become a big
history big data has become a big
history big data has become a big problem
problem
problem Digital storage is really expensive and
Digital storage is really expensive and
Digital storage is really expensive and none of these devices that we have
none of these devices that we have
none of these devices that we have really stand the test of time there’s
really stand the test of time there’s
really stand the test of time there’s this nonprofit website called the
this nonprofit website called the
this nonprofit website called the Internet Archive in addition to free
Internet Archive in addition to free
Internet Archive in addition to free books and movies you can access webpages
books and movies you can access webpages
books and movies you can access webpages as far back as 1996 now this is very
as far back as 1996 now this is very
as far back as 1996 now this is very tempting but I decided to go back and
tempting but I decided to go back and
tempting but I decided to go back and look at the Ted websites very humble
look at the Ted websites very humble
look at the Ted websites very humble beginnings as you can see it’s changed
beginnings as you can see it’s changed
beginnings as you can see it’s changed quite a bit in the last 30 years so this
quite a bit in the last 30 years so this
quite a bit in the last 30 years so this led me to the first ever Ted back in
led me to the first ever Ted back in
led me to the first ever Ted back in 1984 and it just so happened to be a
1984 and it just so happened to be a
1984 and it just so happened to be a Sony executive explaining how a compact
Sony executive explaining how a compact
Sony executive explaining how a compact disc works now it’s in its really
disc works now it’s in its really
disc works now it’s in its really incredible to be able to go back in time
incredible to be able to go back in time
incredible to be able to go back in time and access this moment it’s also really
and access this moment it’s also really
and access this moment it’s also really fascinating that after 30 years after
fascinating that after 30 years after
fascinating that after 30 years after that first Ted were still talking about
that first Ted were still talking about
that first Ted were still talking about digital storage now if we look back
digital storage now if we look back
digital storage now if we look back another 30 years IBM released the first
another 30 years IBM released the first
another 30 years IBM released the first ever hard drive back in 1956 here it is
ever hard drive back in 1956 here it is
ever hard drive back in 1956 here it is being loaded for shipping in front of a
being loaded for shipping in front of a
being loaded for shipping in front of a small audience it held the equivalent of
small audience it held the equivalent of
small audience it held the equivalent of one mp3 song and weight over one ton at
one mp3 song and weight over one ton at
one mp3 song and weight over one ton at $10,000 a megabyte I don’t think anyone
$10,000 a megabyte I don’t think anyone
$10,000 a megabyte I don’t think anyone in this room would be interested in
in this room would be interested in
in this room would be interested in buying this thing
buying this thing
buying this thing except maybe as a collector’s item but
except maybe as a collector’s item but
except maybe as a collector’s item but it’s the best that we could do at the
it’s the best that we could do at the
it’s the best that we could do at the time we’ve come such a long way in data
time we’ve come such a long way in data
time we’ve come such a long way in data storage devices have evolved
storage devices have evolved
storage devices have evolved dramatically but all media eventually
dramatically but all media eventually
dramatically but all media eventually wear out or become obsolete if someone
wear out or become obsolete if someone
wear out or become obsolete if someone handed you a floppy drive today to back
handed you a floppy drive today to back
handed you a floppy drive today to back up your presentation you’d probably look
up your presentation you’d probably look
up your presentation you’d probably look at them kind of strange maybe laugh but
at them kind of strange maybe laugh but
at them kind of strange maybe laugh but you’d have no way to use the damn thing
you’d have no way to use the damn thing
you’d have no way to use the damn thing these devices can no longer meet our
these devices can no longer meet our
these devices can no longer meet our storage needs although some of them can
storage needs although some of them can
storage needs although some of them can be repurposed all technology eventually
be repurposed all technology eventually
be repurposed all technology eventually dies or is lost along with our data all
dies or is lost along with our data all
dies or is lost along with our data all of our memories there’s this illusion
of our memories there’s this illusion
of our memories there’s this illusion that the storage problem has been solved
that the storage problem has been solved
that the storage problem has been solved but really we all just externalise it we
but really we all just externalise it we
but really we all just externalise it we don’t worry about storing our emails and
don’t worry about storing our emails and
don’t worry about storing our emails and our photos they’re just in the cloud but
our photos they’re just in the cloud but
our photos they’re just in the cloud but behind the scenes storage is problematic
behind the scenes storage is problematic
behind the scenes storage is problematic after all the cloud is just a lot of
after all the cloud is just a lot of
after all the cloud is just a lot of hard drives most of recorded human
hard drives most of recorded human
hard drives most of recorded human knowledge is now digital and there’s a
knowledge is now digital and there’s a
knowledge is now digital and there’s a lot of it modern media lasts tens of
lot of it modern media lasts tens of
lot of it modern media lasts tens of years if we’re lucky reading and writing
years if we’re lucky reading and writing
years if we’re lucky reading and writing and exposure to moisture and heat wears
and exposure to moisture and heat wears
and exposure to moisture and heat wears them out even more quickly we’re lucky
them out even more quickly we’re lucky
them out even more quickly we’re lucky if we get a few years out of these
if we get a few years out of these
if we get a few years out of these things man-made devices just are not
things man-made devices just are not
things man-made devices just are not very reliable and quickly become
very reliable and quickly become
very reliable and quickly become obsolete this was a popular storage
obsolete this was a popular storage
obsolete this was a popular storage device in the 80s and 90s mostly for
device in the 80s and 90s mostly for
device in the 80s and 90s mostly for storing cheesy pop songs yet the
storing cheesy pop songs yet the
storing cheesy pop songs yet the important link between these two objects
important link between these two objects
important link between these two objects is already being forgotten the more
is already being forgotten the more
is already being forgotten the more advanced computers get the more data we
advanced computers get the more data we
advanced computers get the more data we create storage has really been an issue
create storage has really been an issue
create storage has really been an issue since that first ever hard drive and in
since that first ever hard drive and in
since that first ever hard drive and in fact no media manufacturer in the world
fact no media manufacturer in the world
fact no media manufacturer in the world will guarantee that you’ll be able to
will guarantee that you’ll be able to
will guarantee that you’ll be able to recover your data with a exception of a
recover your data with a exception of a
recover your data with a exception of a few costly solutions now most digital
few costly solutions now most digital
few costly solutions now most digital data we could argue is not really
data we could argue is not really
data we could argue is not really critical surely we could just delete it
critical surely we could just delete it
critical surely we could just delete it but how can we really know
but how can we really know
but how can we really know it’s important today we’ve learned so
it’s important today we’ve learned so
it’s important today we’ve learned so much about human history from drawings
much about human history from drawings
much about human history from drawings and writings and caves from stone
and writings and caves from stone
and writings and caves from stone tablets we’ve deciphered languages from
tablets we’ve deciphered languages from
tablets we’ve deciphered languages from the Rosetta Stone you know we’ll never
the Rosetta Stone you know we’ll never
the Rosetta Stone you know we’ll never really have the whole story though our
really have the whole story though our
really have the whole story though our data is our story even more so today we
data is our story even more so today we
data is our story even more so today we won’t have our record recorded on stone
won’t have our record recorded on stone
won’t have our record recorded on stone tablets but we don’t have to choose what
tablets but we don’t have to choose what
tablets but we don’t have to choose what is important now there’s a way to store
is important now there’s a way to store
is important now there’s a way to store it all we’ve been steadily improving
it all we’ve been steadily improving
it all we’ve been steadily improving this flimsy technology from floppy disks
this flimsy technology from floppy disks
this flimsy technology from floppy disks to flash drives but it’s not enough
to flash drives but it’s not enough
to flash drives but it’s not enough these are pretty short-term solutions it
these are pretty short-term solutions it
these are pretty short-term solutions it turns out that there’s a solution that’s
turns out that there’s a solution that’s
turns out that there’s a solution that’s been around for a few billion years and
been around for a few billion years and
been around for a few billion years and it’s actually in this tube DNA is
it’s actually in this tube DNA is
it’s actually in this tube DNA is nature’s oldest storage device after all
nature’s oldest storage device after all
nature’s oldest storage device after all it contains all the information
it contains all the information
it contains all the information necessary to build and maintain a human
necessary to build and maintain a human
necessary to build and maintain a human being but what makes DNA so great well
being but what makes DNA so great well
being but what makes DNA so great well let’s take our own genome as an example
let’s take our own genome as an example
let’s take our own genome as an example if we were to print out all three
if we were to print out all three
if we were to print out all three billion ace t’s c’s and g’s on a you
billion ace t’s c’s and g’s on a you
billion ace t’s c’s and g’s on a you know standard font standard format and
know standard font standard format and
know standard font standard format and then we were to stack all of those
then we were to stack all of those
then we were to stack all of those papers it would be about a hundred and
papers it would be about a hundred and
papers it would be about a hundred and forty meters high somewhere between the
forty meters high somewhere between the
forty meters high somewhere between the Statue of Liberty and the Washington
Statue of Liberty and the Washington
Statue of Liberty and the Washington Monument now if we converted all those
Monument now if we converted all those
Monument now if we converted all those A’s T’s and G’s to digital data to zeros
A’s T’s and G’s to digital data to zeros
A’s T’s and G’s to digital data to zeros and ones it would total a few gigs and
and ones it would total a few gigs and
and ones it would total a few gigs and that’s in each cell of our body we have
that’s in each cell of our body we have
that’s in each cell of our body we have more than 30 trillion cells you get the
more than 30 trillion cells you get the
more than 30 trillion cells you get the idea
idea
idea DNA can store a ton of information in a
DNA can store a ton of information in a
DNA can store a ton of information in a miniscule space DNA is also very durable
miniscule space DNA is also very durable
miniscule space DNA is also very durable and it doesn’t even require electricity
and it doesn’t even require electricity
and it doesn’t even require electricity to store it we know this because
to store it we know this because
to store it we know this because scientists have recovered DNA from
scientists have recovered DNA from
scientists have recovered DNA from ancient humans that lived hundreds of
ancient humans that lived hundreds of
ancient humans that lived hundreds of thousands of years ago
thousands of years ago
thousands of years ago one of those is Otzi the Iceman turns
one of those is Otzi the Iceman turns
one of those is Otzi the Iceman turns out he’s Austrian you know scientists
out he’s Austrian you know scientists
out he’s Austrian you know scientists were able to recover DNA from Otzi he
were able to recover DNA from Otzi he
were able to recover DNA from Otzi he was found high well-preserved in the
was found high well-preserved in the
was found high well-preserved in the mountains between Italy and Austria and
mountains between Italy and Austria and
mountains between Italy and Austria and it turns out that he has living genetic
it turns out that he has living genetic
it turns out that he has living genetic relatives
relatives
relatives in Austria today so you one of you could
in Austria today so you one of you could
in Austria today so you one of you could be a cousin of it see the point is that
be a cousin of it see the point is that
be a cousin of it see the point is that we have a better chance of recovering
we have a better chance of recovering
we have a better chance of recovering information from an ancient human than
information from an ancient human than
information from an ancient human than we do from an old phone it’s also much
we do from an old phone it’s also much
we do from an old phone it’s also much less likely that we’ll lose the ability
less likely that we’ll lose the ability
less likely that we’ll lose the ability to read DNA than any single man-made
to read DNA than any single man-made
to read DNA than any single man-made device every single new storage format
device every single new storage format
device every single new storage format requires a new way to read it we’ll
requires a new way to read it we’ll
requires a new way to read it we’ll always be able to read DNA if we can no
always be able to read DNA if we can no
always be able to read DNA if we can no longer sequence we have bigger problems
longer sequence we have bigger problems
longer sequence we have bigger problems than worrying about data storage storing
than worrying about data storage storing
than worrying about data storage storing data on DNA is not new nature’s been
data on DNA is not new nature’s been
data on DNA is not new nature’s been doing it for several billion years in
doing it for several billion years in
doing it for several billion years in fact every living thing is a DNA storage
fact every living thing is a DNA storage
fact every living thing is a DNA storage device but how do we store data on DNA
device but how do we store data on DNA
device but how do we store data on DNA this is photo 51 it’s the first ever
this is photo 51 it’s the first ever
this is photo 51 it’s the first ever photo of DNA taken about 60 years ago
photo of DNA taken about 60 years ago
photo of DNA taken about 60 years ago this is around the time that that same
this is around the time that that same
this is around the time that that same hard drive was released by IBM so really
hard drive was released by IBM so really
hard drive was released by IBM so really our understanding of digital storage and
our understanding of digital storage and
our understanding of digital storage and of DNA have co-evolved we first learned
of DNA have co-evolved we first learned
of DNA have co-evolved we first learned to sequence or read DNA and very soon
to sequence or read DNA and very soon
to sequence or read DNA and very soon after how to write it or synthesize it
after how to write it or synthesize it
after how to write it or synthesize it this is much like how we learn a new
this is much like how we learn a new
this is much like how we learn a new language and now we have the ability to
language and now we have the ability to
language and now we have the ability to read write and copy DNA we do it in the
read write and copy DNA we do it in the
read write and copy DNA we do it in the lab all the time
lab all the time
lab all the time so anything really anything that can be
so anything really anything that can be
so anything really anything that can be stored as zeros and ones can be stored
stored as zeros and ones can be stored
stored as zeros and ones can be stored in DNA to store something digitally like
in DNA to store something digitally like
in DNA to store something digitally like this photo we convert it to bits or
this photo we convert it to bits or
this photo we convert it to bits or binary digits each pixel in a black and
binary digits each pixel in a black and
binary digits each pixel in a black and white photo is simply a 0 or a 1 and we
white photo is simply a 0 or a 1 and we
white photo is simply a 0 or a 1 and we can write DNA much like an inkjet
can write DNA much like an inkjet
can write DNA much like an inkjet printer can print letters on a page we
printer can print letters on a page we
printer can print letters on a page we just have to convert our data all of
just have to convert our data all of
just have to convert our data all of those zeros and ones to a is t’s c’s and
those zeros and ones to a is t’s c’s and
those zeros and ones to a is t’s c’s and g’s and then we send this to a synthesis
g’s and then we send this to a synthesis
g’s and then we send this to a synthesis company so we write it we can store it
company so we write it we can store it
company so we write it we can store it and when we want to recover our data we
and when we want to recover our data we
and when we want to recover our data we just sequence it now the fun part of all
just sequence it now the fun part of all
just sequence it now the fun part of all of this is deciding what files to
of this is deciding what files to
of this is deciding what files to include so we’re serious scientists so
include so we’re serious scientists so
include so we’re serious scientists so we had to include
we had to include
we had to include manuscript for good posterity we also
manuscript for good posterity we also
manuscript for good posterity we also included a $50 Amazon gift card don’t
included a $50 Amazon gift card don’t
included a $50 Amazon gift card don’t get too excited it’s already been spent
get too excited it’s already been spent
get too excited it’s already been spent someone decoded it as well as an
someone decoded it as well as an
someone decoded it as well as an operating system one of the first movies
operating system one of the first movies
operating system one of the first movies ever made and a pioneer plaque some of
ever made and a pioneer plaque some of
ever made and a pioneer plaque some of you might have seen this it has a
you might have seen this it has a
you might have seen this it has a depiction of a typical apparently male
depiction of a typical apparently male
depiction of a typical apparently male and female and our approximate location
and female and our approximate location
and female and our approximate location in the solar system in case the Pioneer
in the solar system in case the Pioneer
in the solar system in case the Pioneer spacecraft ever encounters
spacecraft ever encounters
spacecraft ever encounters extraterrestrials so once we decided
extraterrestrials so once we decided
extraterrestrials so once we decided what sort of files we want to encode we
what sort of files we want to encode we
what sort of files we want to encode we package up the data convert those zeros
package up the data convert those zeros
package up the data convert those zeros and ones to a is t’s c’s and g’s and
and ones to a is t’s c’s and g’s and
and ones to a is t’s c’s and g’s and then we just send this file off to a
then we just send this file off to a
then we just send this file off to a synthesis company and this is what we
synthesis company and this is what we
synthesis company and this is what we got back our files were in this tube all
got back our files were in this tube all
got back our files were in this tube all we had to do was sequence it this all
we had to do was sequence it this all
we had to do was sequence it this all sounds pretty straightforward but the
sounds pretty straightforward but the
sounds pretty straightforward but the difference between a really cool fun
difference between a really cool fun
difference between a really cool fun idea and something we can actually use
idea and something we can actually use
idea and something we can actually use is overcoming these practical challenges
is overcoming these practical challenges
is overcoming these practical challenges now while DNA is more robust than any
now while DNA is more robust than any
now while DNA is more robust than any man-made device it’s not perfect it does
man-made device it’s not perfect it does
man-made device it’s not perfect it does have some weaknesses so we recover our
have some weaknesses so we recover our
have some weaknesses so we recover our message by sequencing the DNA and every
message by sequencing the DNA and every
message by sequencing the DNA and every time data is retrieved we lose the DNA
time data is retrieved we lose the DNA
time data is retrieved we lose the DNA that’s just part of the sequencing
that’s just part of the sequencing
that’s just part of the sequencing process we don’t want to run out of data
process we don’t want to run out of data
process we don’t want to run out of data but luckily there’s a way to copy the
but luckily there’s a way to copy the
but luckily there’s a way to copy the DNA that’s even cheaper and easier than
DNA that’s even cheaper and easier than
DNA that’s even cheaper and easier than seek then synthesizing it we actually
seek then synthesizing it we actually
seek then synthesizing it we actually tested a way to make two hundred
tested a way to make two hundred
tested a way to make two hundred trillion copies of our files and we
trillion copies of our files and we
trillion copies of our files and we recovered all the data without error
recovered all the data without error
recovered all the data without error so sequencing also introduces errors
so sequencing also introduces errors
so sequencing also introduces errors into the into our DNA into the a’s t’s
into the into our DNA into the a’s t’s
into the into our DNA into the a’s t’s c’s and g’s Nature has a way to deal
c’s and g’s Nature has a way to deal
c’s and g’s Nature has a way to deal with this in our cells
with this in our cells
with this in our cells you know our data is stored in synthetic
you know our data is stored in synthetic
you know our data is stored in synthetic DNA in a tube so we had to find our own
DNA in a tube so we had to find our own
DNA in a tube so we had to find our own way to overcome this problem we decided
way to overcome this problem we decided
way to overcome this problem we decided to use an algorithm that was used to
to use an algorithm that was used to
to use an algorithm that was used to stream videos when you’re streaming a
stream videos when you’re streaming a
stream videos when you’re streaming a video you’re essentially trying to
video you’re essentially trying to
video you’re essentially trying to recover the original video the original
recover the original video the original
recover the original video the original file when we’re trying to recover our
file when we’re trying to recover our
file when we’re trying to recover our original files were simply sequencing
original files were simply sequencing
original files were simply sequencing but really both of these processes are
but really both of these processes are
but really both of these processes are about recovering enough zeros and one
about recovering enough zeros and one
about recovering enough zeros and one to put our data back together and so
to put our data back together and so
to put our data back together and so because of our coding strategy we were
because of our coding strategy we were
because of our coding strategy we were able to package up all of our data in a
able to package up all of our data in a
able to package up all of our data in a way that allowed us to make millions and
way that allowed us to make millions and
way that allowed us to make millions and trillions of copies and still always
trillions of copies and still always
trillions of copies and still always recover all of our files back this is
recover all of our files back this is
recover all of our files back this is the movie we encoded it’s one of the
the movie we encoded it’s one of the
the movie we encoded it’s one of the first movies ever made and now the first
first movies ever made and now the first
first movies ever made and now the first to be copied more than 200 trillion
to be copied more than 200 trillion
to be copied more than 200 trillion times on DNA soon after our work was
times on DNA soon after our work was
times on DNA soon after our work was published we persisted we participated
published we persisted we participated
published we persisted we participated and it asked me anything on the website
and it asked me anything on the website
and it asked me anything on the website reddit if you’re a fellow nerd you’re
reddit if you’re a fellow nerd you’re
reddit if you’re a fellow nerd you’re very familiar with this website most
very familiar with this website most
very familiar with this website most questions were thoughtful some were
questions were thoughtful some were
questions were thoughtful some were comical for example one user wanted to
comical for example one user wanted to
comical for example one user wanted to know when we would have a literal thumb
know when we would have a literal thumb
know when we would have a literal thumb drive now the thing is our DNA already
drive now the thing is our DNA already
drive now the thing is our DNA already stores everything needed to make us who
stores everything needed to make us who
stores everything needed to make us who we are it’s a lot safer to store data on
we are it’s a lot safer to store data on
we are it’s a lot safer to store data on DNA in a synthetic DNA in a tube writing
DNA in a synthetic DNA in a tube writing
DNA in a synthetic DNA in a tube writing and reading data from DNA is obviously a
and reading data from DNA is obviously a
and reading data from DNA is obviously a lot more time-consuming than just saving
lot more time-consuming than just saving
lot more time-consuming than just saving all your files on a hard drive for now
all your files on a hard drive for now
all your files on a hard drive for now so initially we should focus on
so initially we should focus on
so initially we should focus on long-term storage most data are
long-term storage most data are
long-term storage most data are ephemeral it’s really hard to grasp
ephemeral it’s really hard to grasp
ephemeral it’s really hard to grasp what’s important today or what will be
what’s important today or what will be
what’s important today or what will be important for future generations but the
important for future generations but the
important for future generations but the point is we don’t have to decide today
point is we don’t have to decide today
point is we don’t have to decide today there’s this great program by UNESCO
there’s this great program by UNESCO
there’s this great program by UNESCO called the memory of the world program
called the memory of the world program
called the memory of the world program it’s been created to preserve historical
it’s been created to preserve historical
it’s been created to preserve historical materials that are considered a value to
materials that are considered a value to
materials that are considered a value to all of humanity items are nominated to
all of humanity items are nominated to
all of humanity items are nominated to be added to the collection including
be added to the collection including
be added to the collection including that film that we encoded well a
that film that we encoded well a
that film that we encoded well a wonderful way to preserve human heritage
wonderful way to preserve human heritage
wonderful way to preserve human heritage it doesn’t have to be a choice instead
it doesn’t have to be a choice instead
it doesn’t have to be a choice instead of asking the current generation us what
of asking the current generation us what
of asking the current generation us what might be important in the future we
might be important in the future we
might be important in the future we could store everything in DNA storage is
could store everything in DNA storage is
could store everything in DNA storage is not just about how many bytes but how
not just about how many bytes but how
not just about how many bytes but how well we can actually store the data and
well we can actually store the data and
well we can actually store the data and recover it there’s always been this
recover it there’s always been this
recover it there’s always been this tension between how much
tension between how much
tension between how much data we can generate and how much we can
data we can generate and how much we can
data we can generate and how much we can recover and how much we can store every
recover and how much we can store every
recover and how much we can store every advance in writing data has required a
advance in writing data has required a
advance in writing data has required a new way to read it we can no longer read
new way to read it we can no longer read
new way to read it we can no longer read old media how many of you even have a
old media how many of you even have a
old media how many of you even have a disk drive in your laptop never mind a
disk drive in your laptop never mind a
disk drive in your laptop never mind a floppy drive this will never be the case
floppy drive this will never be the case
floppy drive this will never be the case with DNA as long as we’re around DNA is
with DNA as long as we’re around DNA is
with DNA as long as we’re around DNA is around and we’ll find a way to sequence
around and we’ll find a way to sequence
around and we’ll find a way to sequence it archiving the world around us is part
it archiving the world around us is part
it archiving the world around us is part of human nature this is the progress
of human nature this is the progress
of human nature this is the progress we’ve made in digital storage in 60
we’ve made in digital storage in 60
we’ve made in digital storage in 60 years at a time when we were only
years at a time when we were only
years at a time when we were only beginning to understand DNA yet we’ve
beginning to understand DNA yet we’ve
beginning to understand DNA yet we’ve made similar progress in half that time
made similar progress in half that time
made similar progress in half that time with DNA sequencers and as long as we’re
with DNA sequencers and as long as we’re
with DNA sequencers and as long as we’re around DNA we’ll never be obsolete thank
around DNA we’ll never be obsolete thank
around DNA we’ll never be obsolete thank you
you
you [Applause]
”
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