you know we have a little bit of time before this evening too to talk about
before this evening too to talk about
before this evening too to talk about some of the similarities and differences
some of the similarities and differences
some of the similarities and differences and between our work and certainly at
and between our work and certainly at
and between our work and certainly at the most basic level I think we’re both
the most basic level I think we’re both
the most basic level I think we’re both interested in exploring the invisible in
interested in exploring the invisible in
interested in exploring the invisible in the case of Adam it’s exploring the
the case of Adam it’s exploring the
the case of Adam it’s exploring the far-distant gallons that galaxies
far-distant gallons that galaxies
far-distant gallons that galaxies light-years away for me it’s what’s
light-years away for me it’s what’s
light-years away for me it’s what’s right beneath our feet and the
right beneath our feet and the
right beneath our feet and the underground underworld so to speak so I
underground underworld so to speak so I
underground underworld so to speak so I think will will I’ll give an
think will will I’ll give an
think will will I’ll give an introduction to my world
introduction to my world
introduction to my world and then hopefully during the discussion
and then hopefully during the discussion
and then hopefully during the discussion after adam’s talk we’ll get a sense of
after adam’s talk we’ll get a sense of
after adam’s talk we’ll get a sense of what we do
what we do
what we do base similarities we both use our heads
base similarities we both use our heads
base similarities we both use our heads in Adams case it’s a kind of complex
in Adams case it’s a kind of complex
in Adams case it’s a kind of complex mathematics this is actually a seventeen
mathematics this is actually a seventeen
mathematics this is actually a seventeen hundred year old BC what people think is
hundred year old BC what people think is
hundred year old BC what people think is the first approximation of the square
the first approximation of the square
the first approximation of the square root of two but kind of fundamental
root of two but kind of fundamental
root of two but kind of fundamental mathematics I also similarly I use my
mathematics I also similarly I use my
mathematics I also similarly I use my head but Moore is a battering ram right
head but Moore is a battering ram right
head but Moore is a battering ram right here for getting into the blue holes and
here for getting into the blue holes and
here for getting into the blue holes and this is you know literally a lot of what
this is you know literally a lot of what
this is you know literally a lot of what we do is physically search and put
we do is physically search and put
we do is physically search and put ourselves into these kind of mysterious
ourselves into these kind of mysterious
ourselves into these kind of mysterious invisible beneath our feet worlds and I
invisible beneath our feet worlds and I
invisible beneath our feet worlds and I think yeah and you just kind of go in
think yeah and you just kind of go in
think yeah and you just kind of go in there and you don’t know what you’re
there and you don’t know what you’re
there and you don’t know what you’re going to find and my mother when she saw
going to find and my mother when she saw
going to find and my mother when she saw this her comment was you went to school
this her comment was you went to school
this her comment was you went to school for how many years to do that but once
for how many years to do that but once
for how many years to do that but once you do get into these places you really
you do get into these places you really
you do get into these places you really are kind of become a physically a
are kind of become a physically a
are kind of become a physically a time-traveler you get into these time
time-traveler you get into these time
time-traveler you get into these time capsules and what I used to consider
capsules and what I used to consider
capsules and what I used to consider again before really thinking about the
again before really thinking about the
again before really thinking about the kind of stuff that that Adam works on is
kind of stuff that that Adam works on is
kind of stuff that that Adam works on is that some of the things we found in
that some of the things we found in
that some of the things we found in these holes were taking us back to what
these holes were taking us back to what
these holes were taking us back to what I would call deep time which is very
I would call deep time which is very
I would call deep time which is very shallow time by his standards as you’ll
shallow time by his standards as you’ll
shallow time by his standards as you’ll see but really to the the origin of the
see but really to the the origin of the
see but really to the the origin of the earth if we think about the earth about
earth if we think about the earth about
earth if we think about the earth about four-and-a-half billion years old
four-and-a-half billion years old
four-and-a-half billion years old it’s only in the last two and a half
it’s only in the last two and a half
it’s only in the last two and a half billion years where we’ve even had
billion years where we’ve even had
billion years where we’ve even had enough oxygen to keep life alive but the
enough oxygen to keep life alive but the
enough oxygen to keep life alive but the earliest forms of life for microbial
earliest forms of life for microbial
earliest forms of life for microbial forms of life and as you’ll see blue
forms of life and as you’ll see blue
forms of life and as you’ll see blue holes are kind of a modern-day
holes are kind of a modern-day
holes are kind of a modern-day analogy for what we think some of this
analogy for what we think some of this
analogy for what we think some of this these early forms of life evolved out of
these early forms of life evolved out of
these early forms of life evolved out of them and their forms of life that didn’t
them and their forms of life that didn’t
them and their forms of life that didn’t leave a fossil record so we look for
leave a fossil record so we look for
leave a fossil record so we look for these these places on earth where we can
these these places on earth where we can
these these places on earth where we can study them at about 2 and 1/2 billion
study them at about 2 and 1/2 billion
study them at about 2 and 1/2 billion years before present we had what people
years before present we had what people
years before present we had what people refer to as the oxygen revolution where
refer to as the oxygen revolution where
refer to as the oxygen revolution where certain type of bacteria you probably
certain type of bacteria you probably
certain type of bacteria you probably heard of cyanobacteria out competed a
heard of cyanobacteria out competed a
heard of cyanobacteria out competed a lot of the other organisms and microbes
lot of the other organisms and microbes
lot of the other organisms and microbes and the byproduct of the cyanobacteria
and the byproduct of the cyanobacteria
and the byproduct of the cyanobacteria is the oxygen that that makes our earth
is the oxygen that that makes our earth
is the oxygen that that makes our earth livable and it’s really at the the end
livable and it’s really at the the end
livable and it’s really at the the end of the timeline where the life as we
of the timeline where the life as we
of the timeline where the life as we know it comes across and as Andrew Knoll
know it comes across and as Andrew Knoll
know it comes across and as Andrew Knoll and evolutionary biologist said if you
and evolutionary biologist said if you
and evolutionary biologist said if you think that you know humans are the icing
think that you know humans are the icing
think that you know humans are the icing on the cake the cake is really made up
on the cake the cake is really made up
on the cake the cake is really made up of bacteria and I think that’s a nice
of bacteria and I think that’s a nice
of bacteria and I think that’s a nice way to think about about this sort of
way to think about about this sort of
way to think about about this sort of evolution so I don’t know what it’s hard
evolution so I don’t know what it’s hard
evolution so I don’t know what it’s hard to see with a the light on me how many
to see with a the light on me how many
to see with a the light on me how many divers you can yell out how many divers
divers you can yell out how many divers
divers you can yell out how many divers in the audience Oh quite a few
in the audience Oh quite a few
in the audience Oh quite a few how many cave divers oh not many good
how many cave divers oh not many good
how many cave divers oh not many good job security but if you can kill the
job security but if you can kill the
job security but if you can kill the light thanks guys for those of you
light thanks guys for those of you
light thanks guys for those of you that’s actually what an underwater cave
that’s actually what an underwater cave
that’s actually what an underwater cave looks like I take full credit for the
looks like I take full credit for the
looks like I take full credit for the photo as I know our Sadie our photo
photo as I know our Sadie our photo
photo as I know our Sadie our photo editor for the magazine Sadie courrier
editor for the magazine Sadie courrier
editor for the magazine Sadie courrier she’ll see that’s about as skilled as my
she’ll see that’s about as skilled as my
she’ll see that’s about as skilled as my photos are and I’ll show a lot of
photos are and I’ll show a lot of
photos are and I’ll show a lot of beautiful photos and I bet I take no
beautiful photos and I bet I take no
beautiful photos and I bet I take no credit for them that’s what a blue hole
credit for them that’s what a blue hole
credit for them that’s what a blue hole looks like looking up from about a
looks like looking up from about a
looks like looking up from about a hundred meters over 300 feet looking at
hundred meters over 300 feet looking at
hundred meters over 300 feet looking at the entrance as two divers descend down
the entrance as two divers descend down
the entrance as two divers descend down into the hole and then you get into
into the hole and then you get into
into the hole and then you get into these otherworldly sorts of situations
these otherworldly sorts of situations
these otherworldly sorts of situations what you really feel like you’re in this
what you really feel like you’re in this
what you really feel like you’re in this inner space that’s an offshore blue hole
inner space that’s an offshore blue hole
inner space that’s an offshore blue hole so I’ll talk about two kinds of blue
so I’ll talk about two kinds of blue
so I’ll talk about two kinds of blue holes offshore and that’s in Long Island
holes offshore and that’s in Long Island
holes offshore and that’s in Long Island Bahamas that’s the deepest known blue
Bahamas that’s the deepest known blue
Bahamas that’s the deepest known blue hole in the world it’s about 660 feet
hole in the world it’s about 660 feet
hole in the world it’s about 660 feet deep and there’s inland blue holes that
deep and there’s inland blue holes that
deep and there’s inland blue holes that one’s in the pine yards in Abaco Bahamas
one’s in the pine yards in Abaco Bahamas
one’s in the pine yards in Abaco Bahamas so let me get a little bit into the
so let me get a little bit into the
so let me get a little bit into the anatomy of a Blue Hole if you think
anatomy of a Blue Hole if you think
anatomy of a Blue Hole if you think about it hidden I give you the Reader’s
about it hidden I give you the Reader’s
about it hidden I give you the Reader’s Digest version you have rain coming down
Digest version you have rain coming down
Digest version you have rain coming down through the atmosphere picks up a little
through the atmosphere picks up a little
through the atmosphere picks up a little bit of carbon dioxide becomes slightly
bit of carbon dioxide becomes slightly
bit of carbon dioxide becomes slightly acidic hits limestone which could
acidic hits limestone which could
acidic hits limestone which could think of the calcium carbonate almost
think of the calcium carbonate almost
think of the calcium carbonate almost chalk like it can eat away in form
chalk like it can eat away in form
chalk like it can eat away in form reservoirs of water down beneath our
reservoirs of water down beneath our
reservoirs of water down beneath our feet but that’s just how you get the
feet but that’s just how you get the
feet but that’s just how you get the fresh water down there how you get the
fresh water down there how you get the
fresh water down there how you get the lateral cave formation is where that
lateral cave formation is where that
lateral cave formation is where that fresh water meets the salt water that’s
fresh water meets the salt water that’s
fresh water meets the salt water that’s at the equivalent of where sea level is
at the equivalent of where sea level is
at the equivalent of where sea level is that’s come in either through cave
that’s come in either through cave
that’s come in either through cave conduits or through the limestone itself
conduits or through the limestone itself
conduits or through the limestone itself it’s as if we’re standing on a sponge
it’s as if we’re standing on a sponge
it’s as if we’re standing on a sponge and there’s many places in the world
and there’s many places in the world
and there’s many places in the world that have this kind of geology well
that have this kind of geology well
that have this kind of geology well there’s a chemical reaction that occurs
there’s a chemical reaction that occurs
there’s a chemical reaction that occurs at that interface at the halocline and
at that interface at the halocline and
at that interface at the halocline and that eats away the cave then when sea
that eats away the cave then when sea
that eats away the cave then when sea level falls or Rises depending on the
level falls or Rises depending on the
level falls or Rises depending on the ice ages for example 20 thousand years
ice ages for example 20 thousand years
ice ages for example 20 thousand years ago the sea level around the Bahamas in
ago the sea level around the Bahamas in
ago the sea level around the Bahamas in Florida was about 400 feet lower than
Florida was about 400 feet lower than
Florida was about 400 feet lower than present-day you’ll get cave formation at
present-day you’ll get cave formation at
present-day you’ll get cave formation at that level sea level will rise stop for
that level sea level will rise stop for
that level sea level will rise stop for a while you get caves for me at that
a while you get caves for me at that
a while you get caves for me at that level and that’s how you can get miles
level and that’s how you can get miles
level and that’s how you can get miles and miles of lateral cave passageway so
and miles of lateral cave passageway so
and miles of lateral cave passageway so as I mentioned these these caves are
as I mentioned these these caves are
as I mentioned these these caves are modern-day analogs for what we think
modern-day analogs for what we think
modern-day analogs for what we think these ancient oceans were like so we
these ancient oceans were like so we
these ancient oceans were like so we have this freshwater lighter fresh water
have this freshwater lighter fresh water
have this freshwater lighter fresh water and it’s got oxygen in it and then
and it’s got oxygen in it and then
and it’s got oxygen in it and then you’ve got this dense or salt water
you’ve got this dense or salt water
you’ve got this dense or salt water beneath it and you’ve got over hundreds
beneath it and you’ve got over hundreds
beneath it and you’ve got over hundreds of thousands of years organic matter so
of thousands of years organic matter so
of thousands of years organic matter so you’ve got plants and trees and animals
you’ve got plants and trees and animals
you’ve got plants and trees and animals falling in and sinking to the bottom
falling in and sinking to the bottom
falling in and sinking to the bottom there there’s microbes that actually
there there’s microbes that actually
there there’s microbes that actually feed off this get their energy from
feed off this get their energy from
feed off this get their energy from these carbon sources and they combine
these carbon sources and they combine
these carbon sources and they combine with the sulfate that’s found in
with the sulfate that’s found in
with the sulfate that’s found in seawater and the byproduct is this sword
seawater and the byproduct is this sword
seawater and the byproduct is this sword a sore hydrogen sulfide which we’ve all
a sore hydrogen sulfide which we’ve all
a sore hydrogen sulfide which we’ve all smelled the rotten eggs sulfur springs
smelled the rotten eggs sulfur springs
smelled the rotten eggs sulfur springs and kind of very poisonous in gaseous
and kind of very poisonous in gaseous
and kind of very poisonous in gaseous form and there’s a whole set of life
form and there’s a whole set of life
form and there’s a whole set of life that lives in that layer as well off
that lives in that layer as well off
that lives in that layer as well off this hydrogen sulfide so we’ve got
this hydrogen sulfide so we’ve got
this hydrogen sulfide so we’ve got different forms of life that we can
different forms of life that we can
different forms of life that we can study from a genetic perspective as well
study from a genetic perspective as well
study from a genetic perspective as well as looking at them in context and get a
as looking at them in context and get a
as looking at them in context and get a sense of what life might have been like
sense of what life might have been like
sense of what life might have been like billions of years ago let me just show
billions of years ago let me just show
billions of years ago let me just show you some of the forms of life that we
you some of the forms of life that we
you some of the forms of life that we find in there this is the big stuff this
find in there this is the big stuff this
find in there this is the big stuff this is the recent finds that’s dr. Tom Iliff
is the recent finds that’s dr. Tom Iliff
is the recent finds that’s dr. Tom Iliff who’s catching a loose if you got blind
who’s catching a loose if you got blind
who’s catching a loose if you got blind cave fish most of the creatures are
cave fish most of the creatures are
cave fish most of the creatures are blind there’s no reason to put your
blind there’s no reason to put your
blind there’s no reason to put your evolutionary
evolutionary
evolutionary energy into eyes or optic nerves and
energy into eyes or optic nerves and
energy into eyes or optic nerves and these creatures that probably remain
these creatures that probably remain
these creatures that probably remain unchanged for about 200 million years
unchanged for about 200 million years
unchanged for about 200 million years some of them not only found just in the
some of them not only found just in the
some of them not only found just in the Bahamas
Bahamas
Bahamas not just in underwater caves but only
not just in underwater caves but only
not just in underwater caves but only have seen them in one cave it shows you
have seen them in one cave it shows you
have seen them in one cave it shows you how little we know about this very
how little we know about this very
how little we know about this very fragile ecosystem no eyes translucent
fragile ecosystem no eyes translucent
fragile ecosystem no eyes translucent that’s a remnant eye with no optic nerve
that’s a remnant eye with no optic nerve
that’s a remnant eye with no optic nerve which tells us that it probably evolved
which tells us that it probably evolved
which tells us that it probably evolved from originally from the oceans that’s a
from originally from the oceans that’s a
from originally from the oceans that’s a new class of crustaceans that was found
new class of crustaceans that was found
new class of crustaceans that was found in the Bahamas in the 70s and we found
in the Bahamas in the 70s and we found
in the Bahamas in the 70s and we found subsequent species remipede iya so that
subsequent species remipede iya so that
subsequent species remipede iya so that was a major find out of the blue holes
was a major find out of the blue holes
was a major find out of the blue holes there’s a close-up they have venomous
there’s a close-up they have venomous
there’s a close-up they have venomous fangs but this is about the extent of my
fangs but this is about the extent of my
fangs but this is about the extent of my experience with astronomy which is my
experience with astronomy which is my
experience with astronomy which is my screensaver on my Mac so you know I
screensaver on my Mac so you know I
screensaver on my Mac so you know I assume I was brought here to make Adam
assume I was brought here to make Adam
assume I was brought here to make Adam look particularly smart but it did when
look particularly smart but it did when
look particularly smart but it did when I did see this it does at least
I did see this it does at least
I did see this it does at least metaphorically I make the link to what
metaphorically I make the link to what
metaphorically I make the link to what goes on with potential forms of life in
goes on with potential forms of life in
goes on with potential forms of life in certain places like Europa and Mars and
certain places like Europa and Mars and
certain places like Europa and Mars and that brings us back to the blue holes
that brings us back to the blue holes
that brings us back to the blue holes and that’s actually a shot of 30 feet
and that’s actually a shot of 30 feet
and that’s actually a shot of 30 feet deep 10 meters deep and if you were
deep 10 meters deep and if you were
deep 10 meters deep and if you were diving down descending you would hit
diving down descending you would hit
diving down descending you would hit what looks like these rings of Saturn
what looks like these rings of Saturn
what looks like these rings of Saturn and that’s the hydrogen sulfide layer
and that’s the hydrogen sulfide layer
and that’s the hydrogen sulfide layer and the pink is actually the
and the pink is actually the
and the pink is actually the pigmentation in the cells of the
pigmentation in the cells of the
pigmentation in the cells of the bacteria it’s that voluminous and the
bacteria it’s that voluminous and the
bacteria it’s that voluminous and the white is sulfur elemental sulfur that’s
white is sulfur elemental sulfur that’s
white is sulfur elemental sulfur that’s broken down and the chemosynthesis or
broken down and the chemosynthesis or
broken down and the chemosynthesis or the metabolic process of the bacteria so
the metabolic process of the bacteria so
the metabolic process of the bacteria so you’re literally descending down into
you’re literally descending down into
you’re literally descending down into this noxious layer you start to smell
this noxious layer you start to smell
this noxious layer you start to smell the rotten egg smell before you can get
the rotten egg smell before you can get
the rotten egg smell before you can get to it and obviously you’re wearing a
to it and obviously you’re wearing a
to it and obviously you’re wearing a face mask so you’re not smelling it
face mask so you’re not smelling it
face mask so you’re not smelling it through your nose it’s actually
through your nose it’s actually
through your nose it’s actually diffusing through the pores and your
diffusing through the pores and your
diffusing through the pores and your skin through your wetsuit or even if
skin through your wetsuit or even if
skin through your wetsuit or even if you’re wearing a dry suit you know
you’re wearing a dry suit you know
you’re wearing a dry suit you know you’re staying in it too long once you
you’re staying in it too long once you
you’re staying in it too long once you stop smelling it because it’s actually
stop smelling it because it’s actually
stop smelling it because it’s actually dead and your olfactory nerves and your
dead and your olfactory nerves and your
dead and your olfactory nerves and your sometimes the metal starts to change
sometimes the metal starts to change
sometimes the metal starts to change color so we try to move quickly through
color so we try to move quickly through
color so we try to move quickly through it but sometimes that’s where we do
it but sometimes that’s where we do
it but sometimes that’s where we do quite a bit of our sampling and what
quite a bit of our sampling and what
quite a bit of our sampling and what happens physiologically is you have the
happens physiologically is you have the
happens physiologically is you have the hydrogen sulfide stops the
hydrogen sulfide stops the
hydrogen sulfide stops the from binding to the red blood cells and
from binding to the red blood cells and
from binding to the red blood cells and impedes oxygen update you might start to
impedes oxygen update you might start to
impedes oxygen update you might start to get tingly lips or whatnot we talked a
get tingly lips or whatnot we talked a
get tingly lips or whatnot we talked a lot of physiologist no clear answers on
lot of physiologist no clear answers on
lot of physiologist no clear answers on what long-term exposure made to we did
what long-term exposure made to we did
what long-term exposure made to we did quite a few we did about 150 dives just
quite a few we did about 150 dives just
quite a few we did about 150 dives just in this one hole there’s some evidence
in this one hole there’s some evidence
in this one hole there’s some evidence that’s that’s actually what I look like
that’s that’s actually what I look like
that’s that’s actually what I look like before the expedition and there was some
before the expedition and there was some
before the expedition and there was some some slight physiological changes
some slight physiological changes
some slight physiological changes afterwards but we’ve you know we’ve
afterwards but we’ve you know we’ve
afterwards but we’ve you know we’ve dealt with them
dealt with them
dealt with them subsequent right so how am i doing maybe
subsequent right so how am i doing maybe
subsequent right so how am i doing maybe I should get off the stage but let me
I should get off the stage but let me
I should get off the stage but let me just go on to one of the other quickly
just go on to one of the other quickly
just go on to one of the other quickly one of the other scientific questions at
one of the other scientific questions at
one of the other scientific questions at the hardly expedition was looking at the
the hardly expedition was looking at the
the hardly expedition was looking at the natural history of the Caribbean as it
natural history of the Caribbean as it
natural history of the Caribbean as it ends up this anoxic saltwater no oxygen
ends up this anoxic saltwater no oxygen
ends up this anoxic saltwater no oxygen saltwater is a great place to preserve
saltwater is a great place to preserve
saltwater is a great place to preserve fossils including collagen where you can
fossils including collagen where you can
fossils including collagen where you can get DNA out of so we did a lot of work
get DNA out of so we did a lot of work
get DNA out of so we did a lot of work excavating here’s just some examples
excavating here’s just some examples
excavating here’s just some examples that’s in 90 feet of water it’s probably
that’s in 90 feet of water it’s probably
that’s in 90 feet of water it’s probably about a thirteen thousand year old owl
about a thirteen thousand year old owl
about a thirteen thousand year old owl roost so an owl would go out of the cave
roost so an owl would go out of the cave
roost so an owl would go out of the cave go hunting come back whatever it ate
go hunting come back whatever it ate
go hunting come back whatever it ate lizards birds small mammals it would
lizards birds small mammals it would
lizards birds small mammals it would digest the food but it actually
digest the food but it actually
digest the food but it actually regurgitate up there the bones so that
regurgitate up there the bones so that
regurgitate up there the bones so that whole little meter square excavation pit
whole little meter square excavation pit
whole little meter square excavation pit we found about twenty-six new species
we found about twenty-six new species
we found about twenty-six new species either unknown to science didn’t know
either unknown to science didn’t know
either unknown to science didn’t know they lived in that part of the world or
they lived in that part of the world or
they lived in that part of the world or we learned that they had somehow gone
we learned that they had somehow gone
we learned that they had somehow gone extinct lots of land tortoises species
extinct lots of land tortoises species
extinct lots of land tortoises species we didn’t know existed small mammals
we didn’t know existed small mammals
we didn’t know existed small mammals birds of prey crocodiles that we didn’t
birds of prey crocodiles that we didn’t
birds of prey crocodiles that we didn’t know existed in this area they’re
know existed in this area they’re
know existed in this area they’re related to the highly endangered Cuban
related to the highly endangered Cuban
related to the highly endangered Cuban crocodile found in just one small
crocodile found in just one small
crocodile found in just one small wetland area Lucayan Indian burial
wetland area Lucayan Indian burial
wetland area Lucayan Indian burial grounds there’s no surviving descendants
grounds there’s no surviving descendants
grounds there’s no surviving descendants of the Lucayan Indians so there’s a lot
of the Lucayan Indians so there’s a lot
of the Lucayan Indians so there’s a lot of mystery there’s not a good record on
of mystery there’s not a good record on
of mystery there’s not a good record on what happened with human migration when
what happened with human migration when
what happened with human migration when Paleo Indians came out of the Orinoco
Paleo Indians came out of the Orinoco
Paleo Indians came out of the Orinoco Basin in Venezuela
Basin in Venezuela
Basin in Venezuela there’s our expedition really yielded
there’s our expedition really yielded
there’s our expedition really yielded some interesting answers but many more
some interesting answers but many more
some interesting answers but many more questions about why certain species
questions about why certain species
questions about why certain species disappeared and why there was or wasn’t
disappeared and why there was or wasn’t
disappeared and why there was or wasn’t overlap between human and non-human
overlap between human and non-human
overlap between human and non-human species the last can major question one
species the last can major question one
species the last can major question one that we’re really following up
that we’re really following up
that we’re really following up Leon is trying to learn more about the
Leon is trying to learn more about the
Leon is trying to learn more about the sensitivity of our climate system so as
sensitivity of our climate system so as
sensitivity of our climate system so as it turns out these stalagmites and
it turns out these stalagmites and
it turns out these stalagmites and stalactites types are the ones that come
stalactites types are the ones that come
stalactites types are the ones that come from the top
from the top
from the top mites come from the bottom they only
mites come from the bottom they only
mites come from the bottom they only grow in the cave as dry as water
grow in the cave as dry as water
grow in the cave as dry as water percolates through the limestone it
percolates through the limestone it
percolates through the limestone it drips down on the floor evaporates and
drips down on the floor evaporates and
drips down on the floor evaporates and slowly you start to get these cave
slowly you start to get these cave
slowly you start to get these cave formations accreting well it ends up
formations accreting well it ends up
formations accreting well it ends up there great recorders just like ice
there great recorders just like ice
there great recorders just like ice cores or tree rings great recorders of
cores or tree rings great recorders of
cores or tree rings great recorders of the environmental history at the time
the environmental history at the time
the environmental history at the time the temperature and precipitation and
the temperature and precipitation and
the temperature and precipitation and remember they only grow when the cave is
remember they only grow when the cave is
remember they only grow when the cave is dry so they’re also very precise
dry so they’re also very precise
dry so they’re also very precise recorders of sea-level rise and fall but
recorders of sea-level rise and fall but
recorders of sea-level rise and fall but in addition to really solidifying some
in addition to really solidifying some
in addition to really solidifying some of the scientific ideas about abrupt
of the scientific ideas about abrupt
of the scientific ideas about abrupt climate change we had some other
climate change we had some other
climate change we had some other interesting findings that’s a hair and
interesting findings that’s a hair and
interesting findings that’s a hair and dust there’s no natural source of the
dust there’s no natural source of the
dust there’s no natural source of the dust in the Bahamas and it’s come over
dust in the Bahamas and it’s come over
dust in the Bahamas and it’s come over and it’s come over in such massive
and it’s come over in such massive
and it’s come over in such massive quantities that it really led to
quantities that it really led to
quantities that it really led to questions of how to get here why in such
questions of how to get here why in such
questions of how to get here why in such quantities why in certain areas of the
quantities why in certain areas of the
quantities why in certain areas of the cave and as it turns out it ends up that
cave and as it turns out it ends up that
cave and as it turns out it ends up that this dust is trapped in the speleothems
this dust is trapped in the speleothems
this dust is trapped in the speleothems and is exactly in line with these abrupt
and is exactly in line with these abrupt
and is exactly in line with these abrupt cooling and warming periods what are
cooling and warming periods what are
cooling and warming periods what are called Henryk events and we have some
called Henryk events and we have some
called Henryk events and we have some very compelling evidence that dust is a
very compelling evidence that dust is a
very compelling evidence that dust is a driver as opposed to a reaction to
driver as opposed to a reaction to
driver as opposed to a reaction to climate changes and that has big
climate changes and that has big
climate changes and that has big implications not just for the
implications not just for the
implications not just for the sensitivity of the climate as we add
sensitivity of the climate as we add
sensitivity of the climate as we add greenhouse gases but also has
greenhouse gases but also has
greenhouse gases but also has implications for land use and land
implications for land use and land
implications for land use and land change as well this is actually from the
change as well this is actually from the
change as well this is actually from the USGS all the water in the world if you
USGS all the water in the world if you
USGS all the water in the world if you put it together including the oceans is
put it together including the oceans is
put it together including the oceans is that big blue marble forget the tiny one
that big blue marble forget the tiny one
that big blue marble forget the tiny one the one little bit bigger that’s visible
the one little bit bigger that’s visible
the one little bit bigger that’s visible that’s all our groundwater that’s if you
that’s all our groundwater that’s if you
that’s all our groundwater that’s if you take away what’s locked up in ice
take away what’s locked up in ice
take away what’s locked up in ice 95% of world’s freshwater is beneath our
95% of world’s freshwater is beneath our
95% of world’s freshwater is beneath our feet in underground reservoirs and it
feet in underground reservoirs and it
feet in underground reservoirs and it all came here from space and the
all came here from space and the
all came here from space and the formation of the earth and it’s we’re
formation of the earth and it’s we’re
formation of the earth and it’s we’re not creating it or destroying it we’re
not creating it or destroying it we’re
not creating it or destroying it we’re just moving around and changing its
just moving around and changing its
just moving around and changing its nature and I think it’s something that
nature and I think it’s something that
nature and I think it’s something that it’s hard to get perspective on and I
it’s hard to get perspective on and I
it’s hard to get perspective on and I think you’ll get it in a different way
think you’ll get it in a different way
think you’ll get it in a different way from the finite nature of what we have
from the finite nature of what we have
from the finite nature of what we have on earth by looking at
on earth by looking at
on earth by looking at what Adam has to say about the infinity
what Adam has to say about the infinity
what Adam has to say about the infinity of space so I think it’s Adams up next
of space so I think it’s Adams up next
of space so I think it’s Adams up next and thank you very much
”
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