Phantom Limbs and Perceived Pain | Jens Foell | TEDxFSU

imagine you’re walking up a flight of

imagine you’re walking up a flight of stairs you slip and you fall and you’re

stairs you slip and you fall and you’re

stairs you slip and you fall and you’re trying to catch your fall with your arm

trying to catch your fall with your arm

trying to catch your fall with your arm only to realize your arm isn’t really

only to realize your arm isn’t really

only to realize your arm isn’t really there it’s an illusion

there it’s an illusion

there it’s an illusion that happened to a patient that was

that happened to a patient that was

that happened to a patient that was talking to first study he had lost his

talking to first study he had lost his

talking to first study he had lost his arm years ago in an accident but still

arm years ago in an accident but still

arm years ago in an accident but still everyday all the time it fell to him as

everyday all the time it fell to him as

everyday all the time it fell to him as if the arm was still there so what we

if the arm was still there so what we

if the arm was still there so what we call a phantom limb now as he was

call a phantom limb now as he was

call a phantom limb now as he was falling you would think that his brain

falling you would think that his brain

falling you would think that his brain would alert him to the fact that

would alert him to the fact that

would alert him to the fact that something is wrong and would tell him

something is wrong and would tell him

something is wrong and would tell him you know do something else this isn’t

you know do something else this isn’t

you know do something else this isn’t working but instead his brain tried to

working but instead his brain tried to

working but instead his brain tried to maintain this idea of an phantom arm and

maintain this idea of an phantom arm and

maintain this idea of an phantom arm and try to reconcile it with reality and so

try to reconcile it with reality and so

try to reconcile it with reality and so he had this very clear image in his mind

he had this very clear image in his mind

he had this very clear image in his mind off his arm going through the stairs as

off his arm going through the stairs as

off his arm going through the stairs as if they were water and he fell flat on

if they were water and he fell flat on

if they were water and he fell flat on his face these phantom limbs the feeling

his face these phantom limbs the feeling

his face these phantom limbs the feeling that a limb is still there they’re

that a limb is still there they’re

that a limb is still there they’re fairly common after amputation but still

fairly common after amputation but still

fairly common after amputation but still not everybody feels them a lot of the

not everybody feels them a lot of the

not everybody feels them a lot of the people who do report them as being very

people who do report them as being very

people who do report them as being very painful we’ve known about this

painful we’ve known about this

painful we’ve known about this phenomenon for quite some time the first

phenomenon for quite some time the first

phenomenon for quite some time the first public figure to talk about it was

public figure to talk about it was

public figure to talk about it was British Admiral Lord Nelson in the 18th

British Admiral Lord Nelson in the 18th

British Admiral Lord Nelson in the 18th century he had lost his arm in in a

century he had lost his arm in in a

century he had lost his arm in in a battle and to him his view was that his

battle and to him his view was that his

battle and to him his view was that his phantom sensations were providing him

phantom sensations were providing him

phantom sensations were providing him with direct evidence for the existence

with direct evidence for the existence

with direct evidence for the existence of an immortal human soul because

of an immortal human soul because

of an immortal human soul because otherwise how could the body still leave

otherwise how could the body still leave

otherwise how could the body still leave an impression after its destruction

an impression after its destruction

an impression after its destruction other people thought it was merely a

other people thought it was merely a

other people thought it was merely a psychological thing like we cannot

psychological thing like we cannot

psychological thing like we cannot accept what has happened to our body and

accept what has happened to our body and

accept what has happened to our body and so we fantasize about the limb being

so we fantasize about the limb being

so we fantasize about the limb being back again so we had all these theories

back again so we had all these theories

back again so we had all these theories but only in the last 25 years did we

but only in the last 25 years did we

but only in the last 25 years did we develop a piece of technology that

develop a piece of technology that

develop a piece of technology that allows us to look into the brain in a

allows us to look into the brain in a

allows us to look into the brain in a way that makes phantom limbs visible I’m

way that makes phantom limbs visible I’m

way that makes phantom limbs visible I’m talking about functional magnetic

talking about functional magnetic

talking about functional magnetic resonance imaging or fMRI but if I’m

resonance imaging or fMRI but if I’m

resonance imaging or fMRI but if I’m gonna call it the brain scan from now on

gonna call it the brain scan from now on

gonna call it the brain scan from now on how does this work I’m gonna ask you for

how does this work I’m gonna ask you for

how does this work I’m gonna ask you for example to come down to our lab be in

example to come down to our lab be in

example to come down to our lab be in the brain scanner and do a simple hand

the brain scanner and do a simple hand

the brain scanner and do a simple hand movement like this if you do that the

movement like this if you do that the

movement like this if you do that the scanner allows me to pinpoint exactly

scanner allows me to pinpoint exactly

scanner allows me to pinpoint exactly where in your brain

where in your brain

where in your brain this movement is controlled and

this movement is controlled and

this movement is controlled and initiated so it’s going to light up as

initiated so it’s going to light up as

initiated so it’s going to light up as as an area as an active area on my

as an area as an active area on my

as an area as an active area on my screen

screen

screen so I do that and then I ask somebody

so I do that and then I ask somebody

so I do that and then I ask somebody else into the scanner somebody who has

else into the scanner somebody who has

else into the scanner somebody who has lost their arm and perceives a phantom

lost their arm and perceives a phantom

lost their arm and perceives a phantom hand and I ask them to do the exact same

hand and I ask them to do the exact same

hand and I ask them to do the exact same thing

thing

thing but with their phantom hand so they’re

but with their phantom hand so they’re

but with their phantom hand so they’re in the scanner they’re moving their

in the scanner they’re moving their

in the scanner they’re moving their phantom hand and keep in mind there’s no

phantom hand and keep in mind there’s no

phantom hand and keep in mind there’s no real movement going on the person is

real movement going on the person is

real movement going on the person is lying perfectly still and yet the brain

lying perfectly still and yet the brain

lying perfectly still and yet the brain scans that I took from you and from them

scans that I took from you and from them

scans that I took from you and from them will look very similar in both cases

will look very similar in both cases

will look very similar in both cases there will be clearly discernible

there will be clearly discernible

there will be clearly discernible activation in the area that controls

activation in the area that controls

activation in the area that controls hand movement now crucially if I ask

hand movement now crucially if I ask

hand movement now crucially if I ask somebody in the scanner who’s been

somebody in the scanner who’s been

somebody in the scanner who’s been amputated but who does not perceive a

amputated but who does not perceive a

amputated but who does not perceive a phantom hand this activation will not be

phantom hand this activation will not be

phantom hand this activation will not be there so that means this activation is

there so that means this activation is

there so that means this activation is our first-ever proof that phantom limbs

our first-ever proof that phantom limbs

our first-ever proof that phantom limbs exist think of it this way you all know

exist think of it this way you all know

exist think of it this way you all know the story about the tree falling in the

the story about the tree falling in the

the story about the tree falling in the forest and the question of whether or

forest and the question of whether or

forest and the question of whether or not it makes a sound even there’s no you

not it makes a sound even there’s no you

not it makes a sound even there’s no you know even though there’s nobody around

know even though there’s nobody around

know even though there’s nobody around to hear it that question actually has

to hear it that question actually has

to hear it that question actually has sort of an answer that tree is certainly

sort of an answer that tree is certainly

sort of an answer that tree is certainly gonna cause pressure waves in the air

gonna cause pressure waves in the air

gonna cause pressure waves in the air which I would usually convey sound to us

which I would usually convey sound to us

which I would usually convey sound to us but without the brain around to

but without the brain around to

but without the brain around to interpret them there’s not going to be

interpret them there’s not going to be

interpret them there’s not going to be the experience of sound in this example

the experience of sound in this example

the experience of sound in this example the phantom limb is like these pressure

the phantom limb is like these pressure

the phantom limb is like these pressure waves intangible until and unless it’s

waves intangible until and unless it’s

waves intangible until and unless it’s interpreted by a brain and the scanner

interpreted by a brain and the scanner

interpreted by a brain and the scanner becomes like placing a recording device

becomes like placing a recording device

becomes like placing a recording device in the forest so suddenly we can collect

in the forest so suddenly we can collect

in the forest so suddenly we can collect a record an objective proof and we can

a record an objective proof and we can

a record an objective proof and we can talk about this and we can investigate

talk about this and we can investigate

talk about this and we can investigate it but how does it work in the brain

it but how does it work in the brain

it but how does it work in the brain like how can the brain experience

like how can the brain experience

like how can the brain experience something feel something that just

something feel something that just

something feel something that just doesn’t exist well spoiler alert

doesn’t exist well spoiler alert

doesn’t exist well spoiler alert the full story is not in yet we’re still

the full story is not in yet we’re still

the full story is not in yet we’re still debating about the details but I can

debating about the details but I can

debating about the details but I can still I can already talk to you about a

still I can already talk to you about a

still I can already talk to you about a fair bit that we do know so let’s go

fair bit that we do know so let’s go

fair bit that we do know so let’s go back to the idea of who was it you lying

back to the idea of who was it you lying

back to the idea of who was it you lying in the scanner and doing the the hand

in the scanner and doing the the hand

in the scanner and doing the the hand movement so the area that controls this

movement so the area that controls this

movement so the area that controls this hand movement is right around here it’s

hand movement is right around here it’s

hand movement is right around here it’s one spot a cluster of cells more or less

one spot a cluster of cells more or less

one spot a cluster of cells more or less right below your skull on the surface of

right below your skull on the surface of

right below your skull on the surface of your brain right next to that is the

your brain right next to that is the

your brain right next to that is the spot that controls mouse movement so

spot that controls mouse movement so

spot that controls mouse movement so that’s going to be active for me right

that’s going to be active for me right

that’s going to be active for me right now because I’m talking to you and then

now because I’m talking to you and then

now because I’m talking to you and then there’s you know the area for leg

there’s you know the area for leg

there’s you know the area for leg movement around and so forth so

movement around and so forth so

movement around and so forth so basically what I could do is I could put

basically what I could do is I could put

basically what I could do is I could put you in the scanner we could do all these

you in the scanner we could do all these

you in the scanner we could do all these movements and afterwards I could

movements and afterwards I could

movements and afterwards I could basically

basically

basically you know take you out open up your skull

you know take you out open up your skull

you know take you out open up your skull take a pen and I’m not gonna do that

take a pen and I’m not gonna do that

take a pen and I’m not gonna do that it’s just I’m I’m trying to make a point

it’s just I’m I’m trying to make a point

it’s just I’m I’m trying to make a point you know everybody’s like what exactly

you know everybody’s like what exactly

you know everybody’s like what exactly did I sign up for here but what I could

did I sign up for here but what I could

did I sign up for here but what I could do is I could draw a little hand over

do is I could draw a little hand over

do is I could draw a little hand over the hand region the mouth over the mouth

the hand region the mouth over the mouth

the hand region the mouth over the mouth region of your brain and I would end up

region of your brain and I would end up

region of your brain and I would end up with a complete drawing of a small

with a complete drawing of a small

with a complete drawing of a small person on the surface of your brain

person on the surface of your brain

person on the surface of your brain because every part of your body that you

because every part of your body that you

because every part of your body that you can move is represented in your brain

can move is represented in your brain

can move is represented in your brain now this person this drawing would look

now this person this drawing would look

now this person this drawing would look a bit odd because again the mouth is

a bit odd because again the mouth is

a bit odd because again the mouth is right next to to the hand and the

right next to to the hand and the

right next to to the hand and the proportions are off but it’s going to be

proportions are off but it’s going to be

proportions are off but it’s going to be an entire map of your body and in fact

an entire map of your body and in fact

an entire map of your body and in fact it’s not the only map of your body that

it’s not the only map of your body that

it’s not the only map of your body that you have in your brain you have a couple

you have in your brain you have a couple

you have in your brain you have a couple of them for example there’s a whole

of them for example there’s a whole

of them for example there’s a whole other one just to process touch so the

other one just to process touch so the

other one just to process touch so the question now becomes what happens to all

question now becomes what happens to all

question now becomes what happens to all of these maps all of these

of these maps all of these

of these maps all of these representations if the shape of your

representations if the shape of your

representations if the shape of your body drastically changes for example

body drastically changes for example

body drastically changes for example after amputation first of all there’s

after amputation first of all there’s

after amputation first of all there’s going to be a number of brain cells with

going to be a number of brain cells with

going to be a number of brain cells with nothing to do because they’re waiting

nothing to do because they’re waiting

nothing to do because they’re waiting for signals that will never come from

for signals that will never come from

for signals that will never come from limbs that don’t exist anymore brain

limbs that don’t exist anymore brain

limbs that don’t exist anymore brain cells hate this kind of boredom so you

cells hate this kind of boredom so you

cells hate this kind of boredom so you know they might sit around they might

know they might sit around they might

know they might sit around they might look around with the neighbors are doing

look around with the neighbors are doing

look around with the neighbors are doing and one of those cells represented used

and one of those cells represented used

and one of those cells represented used to represent your hand might look at the

to represent your hand might look at the

to represent your hand might look at the neighbor who represents the lip and so

neighbor who represents the lip and so

neighbor who represents the lip and so might start doing whatever they are

might start doing whatever they are

might start doing whatever they are doing and as a result these maps might

doing and as a result these maps might

doing and as a result these maps might shift around as cells are being

shift around as cells are being

shift around as cells are being reassigned new tasks so here’s the thing

reassigned new tasks so here’s the thing

reassigned new tasks so here’s the thing using fMRI brain imaging we can measure

using fMRI brain imaging we can measure

using fMRI brain imaging we can measure the degree of this shift the degree of

the degree of this shift the degree of

the degree of this shift the degree of this organization and in fact it was my

this organization and in fact it was my

this organization and in fact it was my PhD mentor back in Germany who found out

PhD mentor back in Germany who found out

PhD mentor back in Germany who found out that the amount of this shift directly

that the amount of this shift directly

that the amount of this shift directly relates to the severity of phantom limb

relates to the severity of phantom limb

relates to the severity of phantom limb pain which means the more your brain

pain which means the more your brain

pain which means the more your brain reorganizes itself after amputation the

reorganizes itself after amputation the

reorganizes itself after amputation the more painful your phantom limb will be

more painful your phantom limb will be

more painful your phantom limb will be but even if we accept that phantom limbs

but even if we accept that phantom limbs

but even if we accept that phantom limbs exist isn’t it you know even weirder

exist isn’t it you know even weirder

exist isn’t it you know even weirder that they can hurt like how can that be

that they can hurt like how can that be

that they can hurt like how can that be because usually we would think of pain

because usually we would think of pain

because usually we would think of pain as something that’s just an automatic

as something that’s just an automatic

as something that’s just an automatic reaction to injury right like switching

reaction to injury right like switching

reaction to injury right like switching on the light but phantom limb pain tells

on the light but phantom limb pain tells

on the light but phantom limb pain tells us that there can be pain without injury

us that there can be pain without injury

us that there can be pain without injury we also know that there can be injury

we also know that there can be injury

we also know that there can be injury without pain we know stories from

without pain we know stories from

without pain we know stories from soldiers on the battlefields

soldiers on the battlefields

soldiers on the battlefields I’m sustained severe injuries and

I’m sustained severe injuries and

I’m sustained severe injuries and sometimes don’t feel any pain presumably

sometimes don’t feel any pain presumably

sometimes don’t feel any pain presumably because their brain has something more

because their brain has something more

because their brain has something more important to do at the time so pain is

important to do at the time so pain is

important to do at the time so pain is not objective the same injury can cause

not objective the same injury can cause

not objective the same injury can cause different degrees of pain depending on

different degrees of pain depending on

different degrees of pain depending on the context depending on whether you’re

the context depending on whether you’re

the context depending on whether you’re on the battlefield you’re in a good mood

on the battlefield you’re in a good mood

on the battlefield you’re in a good mood you’re in love all kinds of stuff that’s

you’re in love all kinds of stuff that’s

you’re in love all kinds of stuff that’s also the reason why there will never be

also the reason why there will never be

also the reason why there will never be an objective pain scale like a bee sting

an objective pain scale like a bee sting

an objective pain scale like a bee sting hurts as much as two slaps in the face

hurts as much as two slaps in the face

hurts as much as two slaps in the face or something like that it has been tried

or something like that it has been tried

or something like that it has been tried but it’s never going to be successful

but it’s never going to be successful

but it’s never going to be successful because it’s not objective because our

because it’s not objective because our

because it’s not objective because our our brain doesn’t just report back

our brain doesn’t just report back

our brain doesn’t just report back what’s happening it has to interpret

what’s happening it has to interpret

what’s happening it has to interpret what’s going on and only what’s real to

what’s going on and only what’s real to

what’s going on and only what’s real to our brain is what is real for us the

our brain is what is real for us the

our brain is what is real for us the same thing is true for other topics as

same thing is true for other topics as

same thing is true for other topics as well the taste of food for example

well the taste of food for example

well the taste of food for example changes depending on context that’s why

changes depending on context that’s why

changes depending on context that’s why it’s so hard to recreate that great meal

it’s so hard to recreate that great meal

it’s so hard to recreate that great meal from your last trip to Italy because

from your last trip to Italy because

from your last trip to Italy because even if you recreate the meal perfectly

even if you recreate the meal perfectly

even if you recreate the meal perfectly down to its last the last molecule if

down to its last the last molecule if

down to its last the last molecule if it’s commissioned it might not have the

it’s commissioned it might not have the

it’s commissioned it might not have the same taste because there’s other stuff

same taste because there’s other stuff

same taste because there’s other stuff coming into it you know you’re at home

coming into it you know you’re at home

coming into it you know you’re at home you’re not in Italy you didn’t just

you’re not in Italy you didn’t just

you’re not in Italy you didn’t just spend the great day hiking you don’t

spend the great day hiking you don’t

spend the great day hiking you don’t have the same life music all of that can

have the same life music all of that can

have the same life music all of that can influence the taste of your food in a

influence the taste of your food in a

influence the taste of your food in a similar way the same story the same

similar way the same story the same

similar way the same story the same experience will be remembered

experience will be remembered

experience will be remembered differently depending on whether you

differently depending on whether you

differently depending on whether you were hungry or scared or angry as it

were hungry or scared or angry as it

were hungry or scared or angry as it occurred that’s why it’s so vitally

occurred that’s why it’s so vitally

occurred that’s why it’s so vitally important to take any eyewitness

important to take any eyewitness

important to take any eyewitness accounts in court with a grain of salt

accounts in court with a grain of salt

accounts in court with a grain of salt so here’s the amazing thing that ties

so here’s the amazing thing that ties

so here’s the amazing thing that ties all of these strands together if I were

all of these strands together if I were

all of these strands together if I were to do a brain scan in any of these

to do a brain scan in any of these

to do a brain scan in any of these situations in any in any situation where

situations in any in any situation where

situations in any in any situation where there is a divide between objective

there is a divide between objective

there is a divide between objective reality and your subjective experience

reality and your subjective experience

reality and your subjective experience the activation in your brain will always

the activation in your brain will always

the activation in your brain will always side with the subjective experience not

side with the subjective experience not

side with the subjective experience not with objective reality because only

with objective reality because only

with objective reality because only what’s real to your brain is what is

what’s real to your brain is what is

what’s real to your brain is what is real to you now if that sounds a bit

real to you now if that sounds a bit

real to you now if that sounds a bit abstract I have a I have an example for

abstract I have a I have an example for

abstract I have a I have an example for you there is a body illusion called the

you there is a body illusion called the

you there is a body illusion called the cutaneous rabbit illusion and it works

cutaneous rabbit illusion and it works

cutaneous rabbit illusion and it works like this I’m going to tap your skin two

like this I’m going to tap your skin two

like this I’m going to tap your skin two times like this and if I do it just

times like this and if I do it just

times like this and if I do it just right in terms of location in terms of

right in terms of location in terms of

right in terms of location in terms of the timing it’s gonna feel like three

the timing it’s gonna feel like three

the timing it’s gonna feel like three taps to you

taps to you

taps to you it’s an illusion that’s based on the way

it’s an illusion that’s based on the way

it’s an illusion that’s based on the way our nerves interpret what’s going on in

our nerves interpret what’s going on in

our nerves interpret what’s going on in the skin this has been done in the

the skin this has been done in the

the skin this has been done in the scanner as well and what you see if you

scanner as well and what you see if you

scanner as well and what you see if you do that

do that

do that three distinct locations of activation

three distinct locations of activation

three distinct locations of activation so for our brain this third tap exists

so for our brain this third tap exists

so for our brain this third tap exists on the skin it does not so where does

on the skin it does not so where does

on the skin it does not so where does that leave us

that leave us

that leave us in terms of the question of what’s real

in terms of the question of what’s real

in terms of the question of what’s real and what’s not real is that third tap

and what’s not real is that third tap

and what’s not real is that third tap real not really right it’s an illusion I

real not really right it’s an illusion I

real not really right it’s an illusion I don’t care if it’s you know pops up on

don’t care if it’s you know pops up on

don’t care if it’s you know pops up on the brain scan it’s still an illusion

the brain scan it’s still an illusion

the brain scan it’s still an illusion but if that’s true then the phantom limb

but if that’s true then the phantom limb

but if that’s true then the phantom limb is also just an illusion and I mean if

is also just an illusion and I mean if

is also just an illusion and I mean if it’s an illusion it’s a pretty powerful

it’s an illusion it’s a pretty powerful

it’s an illusion it’s a pretty powerful one we can feel it we can we can measure

one we can feel it we can we can measure

one we can feel it we can we can measure it we can use it in pain therapy which

it we can use it in pain therapy which

it we can use it in pain therapy which is what I did as a study when I talked

is what I did as a study when I talked

is what I did as a study when I talked to that page in the beginning it’s it’s

to that page in the beginning it’s it’s

to that page in the beginning it’s it’s real to us it’s real as it happens it’s

real to us it’s real as it happens it’s

real to us it’s real as it happens it’s pain real of course pain is real

pain real of course pain is real

pain real of course pain is real everybody knows that I mean sure it’s

everybody knows that I mean sure it’s

everybody knows that I mean sure it’s generated by your brain and as it

generated by your brain and as it

generated by your brain and as it interprets reality but that doesn’t mean

interprets reality but that doesn’t mean

interprets reality but that doesn’t mean that we can ignore it or change it or

that we can ignore it or change it or

that we can ignore it or change it or forget about it and in fact that this is

forget about it and in fact that this is

forget about it and in fact that this is too a misconception that we have if we

too a misconception that we have if we

too a misconception that we have if we say oh something’s you know that’s all

say oh something’s you know that’s all

say oh something’s you know that’s all in your head or that’s just in your mind

in your head or that’s just in your mind

in your head or that’s just in your mind that’s all way of saying it’s not real

that’s all way of saying it’s not real

that’s all way of saying it’s not real you can ignore it and that’s a very bad

you can ignore it and that’s a very bad

you can ignore it and that’s a very bad misconception that’s a misconception

misconception that’s a misconception

misconception that’s a misconception that hurts people

that hurts people

that hurts people because there are people out there

because there are people out there

because there are people out there there’s chronic pain patients out there

there’s chronic pain patients out there

there’s chronic pain patients out there who are physically completely healthy

who are physically completely healthy

who are physically completely healthy but their brain registers pain all the

but their brain registers pain all the

but their brain registers pain all the time and they have trouble being taken

time and they have trouble being taken

time and they have trouble being taken seriously by society they have trouble

seriously by society they have trouble

seriously by society they have trouble getting the right diagnosis because we

getting the right diagnosis because we

getting the right diagnosis because we have this myth in our minds that our

have this myth in our minds that our

have this myth in our minds that our brain just sits back and reports to us

brain just sits back and reports to us

brain just sits back and reports to us whatever is going on in reality but

whatever is going on in reality but

whatever is going on in reality but phantom limb pain tells us that that’s

phantom limb pain tells us that that’s

phantom limb pain tells us that that’s not the case

not the case

not the case phantom limb research tells us that our

phantom limb research tells us that our

phantom limb research tells us that our brain needs to interpret what’s going on

brain needs to interpret what’s going on

brain needs to interpret what’s going on in reality it might do so you know

in reality it might do so you know

in reality it might do so you know imperfectly and we have to rely on this

imperfectly and we have to rely on this

imperfectly and we have to rely on this interpretation of reality flawed as it

interpretation of reality flawed as it

interpretation of reality flawed as it may be because it becomes our new

may be because it becomes our new

may be because it becomes our new reality but then where do we go from

reality but then where do we go from

reality but then where do we go from here what can we do about this

here what can we do about this

here what can we do about this I can give you three pieces of not even

I can give you three pieces of not even

I can give you three pieces of not even advice but of a take-home message of

advice but of a take-home message of

advice but of a take-home message of consequences out of this that I think

consequences out of this that I think

consequences out of this that I think are important first of all we should

are important first of all we should

are important first of all we should always question our own beliefs our own

always question our own beliefs our own

always question our own beliefs our own perceptions regardless you know of the

perceptions regardless you know of the

perceptions regardless you know of the context whether it’s a taste of food or

context whether it’s a taste of food or

context whether it’s a taste of food or you know whatever because

you know whatever because

you know whatever because it might be flawed it might not be what

it might be flawed it might not be what

it might be flawed it might not be what what reality is second of all wherever

what reality is second of all wherever

what reality is second of all wherever we can we should try to use critical

we can we should try to use critical

we can we should try to use critical thinking and the scientific method to

thinking and the scientific method to

thinking and the scientific method to find out what’s actually going on in

find out what’s actually going on in

find out what’s actually going on in reality that’s what we developed science

reality that’s what we developed science

reality that’s what we developed science for to kind of overcome this flawed

for to kind of overcome this flawed

for to kind of overcome this flawed perception of reality and the third one

perception of reality and the third one

perception of reality and the third one is the most important one I think if

is the most important one I think if

is the most important one I think if it’s true that each of us has their own

it’s true that each of us has their own

it’s true that each of us has their own reality about all kinds of things about

reality about all kinds of things about

reality about all kinds of things about things as basic as whether something is

things as basic as whether something is

things as basic as whether something is hurtful about as meanness things as

hurtful about as meanness things as

hurtful about as meanness things as basic as the shape of our body and all

basic as the shape of our body and all

basic as the shape of our body and all of us each of us has this you know

of us each of us has this you know

of us each of us has this you know specific reality for our own and they

specific reality for our own and they

specific reality for our own and they are all equally flawed then I think

are all equally flawed then I think

are all equally flawed then I think that’s a great reason to go out there

that’s a great reason to go out there

that’s a great reason to go out there and approach people with as much

and approach people with as much

and approach people with as much understanding and openness and tolerance

understanding and openness and tolerance

understanding and openness and tolerance as we can because something that is

as we can because something that is

as we can because something that is absolutely a hundred percent real for us

absolutely a hundred percent real for us

absolutely a hundred percent real for us might something that’s not real for them

might something that’s not real for them

might something that’s not real for them thank you for your time

thank you for your time

thank you for your time [Applause]