this will be a story of both the personal pursuit of science as well as
personal pursuit of science as well as
personal pursuit of science as well as that of a discovery that was made by a
that of a discovery that was made by a
that of a discovery that was made by a collaboration of scientists around the
collaboration of scientists around the
collaboration of scientists around the world that has been changing our
world that has been changing our
world that has been changing our understanding of the universe this story
understanding of the universe this story
understanding of the universe this story starts with a very faint whoop we will
starts with a very faint whoop we will
starts with a very faint whoop we will hear this sound shortly
hear this sound shortly
hear this sound shortly [Music]
what you just heard was the sound of
what you just heard was the sound of black holes colliding now this might
black holes colliding now this might
black holes colliding now this might have caught your attention just about a
have caught your attention just about a
have caught your attention just about a year ago newspapers around the world
year ago newspapers around the world
year ago newspapers around the world showcased photographs of Einstein and
showcased photographs of Einstein and
showcased photographs of Einstein and the common theme of Einstein jato
the common theme of Einstein jato
the common theme of Einstein jato fetched Einstein was right disappeared
fetched Einstein was right disappeared
fetched Einstein was right disappeared in papers from Germany to Spain from the
in papers from Germany to Spain from the
in papers from Germany to Spain from the New York Times to are more local
New York Times to are more local
New York Times to are more local clarion-ledger
clarion-ledger
clarion-ledger just what was it that Einstein was right
just what was it that Einstein was right
just what was it that Einstein was right about after all
about after all
about after all Einstein has been proven correct many
Einstein has been proven correct many
Einstein has been proven correct many times before only four years after he
times before only four years after he
times before only four years after he published his general theory of
published his general theory of
published his general theory of relativity in 1915 he was launched to
relativity in 1915 he was launched to
relativity in 1915 he was launched to being a pop star scientists at the time
being a pop star scientists at the time
being a pop star scientists at the time made it observation they saw that
made it observation they saw that
made it observation they saw that starlight that passed close to the Sun
starlight that passed close to the Sun
starlight that passed close to the Sun was bent its path was not straight this
was bent its path was not straight this
was bent its path was not straight this was precisely as Einstein had predicted
was precisely as Einstein had predicted
was precisely as Einstein had predicted it should be this announcement of
it should be this announcement of
it should be this announcement of Einstein was right which came the day
Einstein was right which came the day
Einstein was right which came the day before these newspaper headlines
before these newspaper headlines
before these newspaper headlines appeared was made by Dave Wright see he
appeared was made by Dave Wright see he
appeared was made by Dave Wright see he said we have detected gravitational
said we have detected gravitational
said we have detected gravitational waves we did it so Einstein was right
waves we did it so Einstein was right
waves we did it so Einstein was right about the existence of gravitational
about the existence of gravitational
about the existence of gravitational waves which you can think of as ripples
waves which you can think of as ripples
waves which you can think of as ripples and space-time
and space-time
and space-time now Dave right see is the director of
now Dave right see is the director of
now Dave right see is the director of the LIGO laboratory and also my PhD
the LIGO laboratory and also my PhD
the LIGO laboratory and also my PhD advisor LIGO is the laser interferometer
advisor LIGO is the laser interferometer
advisor LIGO is the laser interferometer gravitational-wave Observatory together
gravitational-wave Observatory together
gravitational-wave Observatory together with hundreds of other experimentalists
with hundreds of other experimentalists
with hundreds of other experimentalists around the world we help design and
around the world we help design and
around the world we help design and build the gravitational wave detectors
build the gravitational wave detectors
build the gravitational wave detectors that recorded this sound of black holes
that recorded this sound of black holes
that recorded this sound of black holes colliding we’ll come back to more about
colliding we’ll come back to more about
colliding we’ll come back to more about me later
me later
me later but first let’s return to the black
but first let’s return to the black
but first let’s return to the black holes and Einstein Einstein is one of
holes and Einstein Einstein is one of
holes and Einstein Einstein is one of these rare single minds whose curiosity
these rare single minds whose curiosity
these rare single minds whose curiosity managed to change fundamentally the way
managed to change fundamentally the way
managed to change fundamentally the way we understand our world what he told us
we understand our world what he told us
we understand our world what he told us is that space and time are not
is that space and time are not
is that space and time are not individual ideas they are in fact
individual ideas they are in fact
individual ideas they are in fact intricately connected in an intertwined
intricately connected in an intertwined
intricately connected in an intertwined web known as space-time now in objects
web known as space-time now in objects
web known as space-time now in objects when matter such as the earth or a black
when matter such as the earth or a black
when matter such as the earth or a black hole or our Sun move around in this
hole or our Sun move around in this
hole or our Sun move around in this space-time they disturb the space-time
space-time they disturb the space-time
space-time they disturb the space-time and they create ripples much like what
and they create ripples much like what
and they create ripples much like what you would see if you were to toss a
you would see if you were to toss a
you would see if you were to toss a pebble into a pond
pebble into a pond
pebble into a pond these emanating ripples are the
these emanating ripples are the
these emanating ripples are the gravitational waves
gravitational waves
gravitational waves now these gravitational waves are
now these gravitational waves are
now these gravitational waves are extremely challenging to detect what we
extremely challenging to detect what we
extremely challenging to detect what we see here is that as these black holes
see here is that as these black holes
see here is that as these black holes are rotating about one another they get
are rotating about one another they get
are rotating about one another they get closer and closer together as they lose
closer and closer together as they lose
closer and closer together as they lose energy in the form of gravitational
energy in the form of gravitational
energy in the form of gravitational waves the light green regions is where
waves the light green regions is where
waves the light green regions is where space-time is getting stretched and the
space-time is getting stretched and the
space-time is getting stretched and the dark green regions is where it’s getting
dark green regions is where it’s getting
dark green regions is where it’s getting compressed these black holes move faster
compressed these black holes move faster
compressed these black holes move faster and faster creating gravitational waves
and faster creating gravitational waves
and faster creating gravitational waves of ever larger amplitude and frequency
of ever larger amplitude and frequency
of ever larger amplitude and frequency until they form one new larger black
until they form one new larger black
until they form one new larger black hole now this movie here is just a
hole now this movie here is just a
hole now this movie here is just a simulation what we actually observed is
simulation what we actually observed is
simulation what we actually observed is this data that follows this is a time
this data that follows this is a time
this data that follows this is a time series showing how the gravitational
series showing how the gravitational
series showing how the gravitational wave came through our detectors
wave came through our detectors
wave came through our detectors increasing in amplitude and in frequency
increasing in amplitude and in frequency
increasing in amplitude and in frequency we observed the final 150 milliseconds
we observed the final 150 milliseconds
we observed the final 150 milliseconds before the black holes collided there
before the black holes collided there
before the black holes collided there were two independent observatories that
were two independent observatories that
were two independent observatories that caught this wave and their data matches
caught this wave and their data matches
caught this wave and their data matches perfectly these black holes each weighed
perfectly these black holes each weighed
perfectly these black holes each weighed about 30 times the mass of the Sun and
about 30 times the mass of the Sun and
about 30 times the mass of the Sun and when they were traveling at just about
when they were traveling at just about
when they were traveling at just about the speed of light that’s when they
the speed of light that’s when they
the speed of light that’s when they collided this is an enormous amount of
collided this is an enormous amount of
collided this is an enormous amount of energy that was released in the form of
energy that was released in the form of
energy that was released in the form of gravitational waves had the form of the
gravitational waves had the form of the
gravitational waves had the form of the energy but instead visible light that
energy but instead visible light that
energy but instead visible light that one could see with your own eyes this
one could see with your own eyes this
one could see with your own eyes this collision would have produced a flash
collision would have produced a flash
collision would have produced a flash that would outshine the light from all
that would outshine the light from all
that would outshine the light from all the stars in the universe combined now I
the stars in the universe combined now I
the stars in the universe combined now I started my endeavor as a researcher in
started my endeavor as a researcher in
started my endeavor as a researcher in science as an undergraduate I worked at
science as an undergraduate I worked at
science as an undergraduate I worked at Vassar College as an undergrad during my
Vassar College as an undergrad during my
Vassar College as an undergrad during my very first summer after my freshman year
very first summer after my freshman year
very first summer after my freshman year I learned through a series of these
I learned through a series of these
I learned through a series of these summer research programs what it meant
summer research programs what it meant
summer research programs what it meant to be a physicist that being a physicist
to be a physicist that being a physicist
to be a physicist that being a physicist could mean several different things I
could mean several different things I
could mean several different things I first learned how to model physical
first learned how to model physical
first learned how to model physical processes such as the fluid dynamics of
processes such as the fluid dynamics of
processes such as the fluid dynamics of stars to understand what happens when
stars to understand what happens when
stars to understand what happens when they collide I then went on to Cornell
they collide I then went on to Cornell
they collide I then went on to Cornell where I learned how to analyze data from
where I learned how to analyze data from
where I learned how to analyze data from a particle accelerator and in my third
a particle accelerator and in my third
a particle accelerator and in my third summer I got involved in experimental
summer I got involved in experimental
summer I got involved in experimental work and this is when I discovered that
work and this is when I discovered that
work and this is when I discovered that experimental work was what suited me
experimental work was what suited me
experimental work was what suited me best and that’s what I went on to do for
best and that’s what I went on to do for
best and that’s what I went on to do for my PhD now this story is just one
my PhD now this story is just one
my PhD now this story is just one example of the hundreds or that are out
example of the hundreds or that are out
example of the hundreds or that are out there of other experimentalists like me
there of other experimentalists like me
there of other experimentalists like me who came to work on this project the
who came to work on this project the
who came to work on this project the LIGO scientific collaboration is a
LIGO scientific collaboration is a
LIGO scientific collaboration is a collaboration of over 1,000 scientists
collaboration of over 1,000 scientists
collaboration of over 1,000 scientists from over 70 different institutions
from over 70 different institutions
from over 70 different institutions around the world ranging from small
around the world ranging from small
around the world ranging from small liberal arts colleges to mid-sized
liberal arts colleges to mid-sized
liberal arts colleges to mid-sized universities like Ole Miss to renowned
universities like Ole Miss to renowned
universities like Ole Miss to renowned institutions and the need for all of
institutions and the need for all of
institutions and the need for all of these scientists working together to
these scientists working together to
these scientists working together to make this discovery is because the
make this discovery is because the
make this discovery is because the discovery itself was an extremely
discovery itself was an extremely
discovery itself was an extremely challenging thing to accomplish
challenging thing to accomplish
challenging thing to accomplish gravitational waves by the time that
gravitational waves by the time that
gravitational waves by the time that they reached the earth are very very
they reached the earth are very very
they reached the earth are very very small so what is it exactly that the
small so what is it exactly that the
small so what is it exactly that the gravitational waves do when they reach
gravitational waves do when they reach
gravitational waves do when they reach the earth in this movie we see an
the earth in this movie we see an
the earth in this movie we see an exaggerated effect where as the
exaggerated effect where as the
exaggerated effect where as the gravitational waves come up from the
gravitational waves come up from the
gravitational waves come up from the southern hemisphere they pass through
southern hemisphere they pass through
southern hemisphere they pass through the earth and alternately stretch it in
the earth and alternately stretch it in
the earth and alternately stretch it in what while shrinking it in the other and
what while shrinking it in the other and
what while shrinking it in the other and then that process reverses this
then that process reverses this
then that process reverses this exaggerated effect here of the shrinking
exaggerated effect here of the shrinking
exaggerated effect here of the shrinking and stretching of the earth the relative
and stretching of the earth the relative
and stretching of the earth the relative the shrinking to the size of the earth
the shrinking to the size of the earth
the shrinking to the size of the earth the strain is of the order or let’s say
the strain is of the order or let’s say
the strain is of the order or let’s say it’s about 1/10
it’s about 1/10
it’s about 1/10 however the strain from gravitational
however the strain from gravitational
however the strain from gravitational waves from these black holes that
waves from these black holes that
waves from these black holes that collided was ten to the minus twenty-one
collided was ten to the minus twenty-one
collided was ten to the minus twenty-one this is of an extremely tiny number the
this is of an extremely tiny number the
this is of an extremely tiny number the way that we would need to measure this
way that we would need to measure this
way that we would need to measure this extremely tiny numbers by building some
extremely tiny numbers by building some
extremely tiny numbers by building some of the most precise rulers ever
of the most precise rulers ever
of the most precise rulers ever developed that were not in existence to
developed that were not in existence to
developed that were not in existence to date it would be equivalent to needing
date it would be equivalent to needing
date it would be equivalent to needing to measure a change in the distance from
to measure a change in the distance from
to measure a change in the distance from us to the nearest star of less than the
us to the nearest star of less than the
us to the nearest star of less than the width of a human hair
so this precision of needing to build
so this precision of needing to build such detectors has a long history and
such detectors has a long history and
such detectors has a long history and dates back to the 1960s
dates back to the 1960s
dates back to the 1960s with Joseph Webber at the University of
with Joseph Webber at the University of
with Joseph Webber at the University of Maryland Weber with his insight into the
Maryland Weber with his insight into the
Maryland Weber with his insight into the problem designed the first gravitational
problem designed the first gravitational
problem designed the first gravitational wave detector
wave detector
wave detector he built a cylinder which would ring
he built a cylinder which would ring
he built a cylinder which would ring much like a bell when a gravitational
much like a bell when a gravitational
much like a bell when a gravitational wave passes through by the end of the
wave passes through by the end of the
wave passes through by the end of the 1960’s Weber claimed to have made a
1960’s Weber claimed to have made a
1960’s Weber claimed to have made a detection this prompted others around
detection this prompted others around
detection this prompted others around the world from the UK to Germany to
the world from the UK to Germany to
the world from the UK to Germany to Italy to elsewhere in the u.s. to build
Italy to elsewhere in the u.s. to build
Italy to elsewhere in the u.s. to build detectors much like Weber’s but they
detectors much like Weber’s but they
detectors much like Weber’s but they didn’t see anything and before long the
didn’t see anything and before long the
didn’t see anything and before long the conclusion of the scientific community
conclusion of the scientific community
conclusion of the scientific community was that Weber must have been wrong now
was that Weber must have been wrong now
was that Weber must have been wrong now this pushed the field forward however
this pushed the field forward however
this pushed the field forward however the curiosity of those to actually
the curiosity of those to actually
the curiosity of those to actually detect a gravitational wave persisted
detect a gravitational wave persisted
detect a gravitational wave persisted who knows what might have happened had
who knows what might have happened had
who knows what might have happened had he not made this false detection the
he not made this false detection the
he not made this false detection the technology that developed as a result of
technology that developed as a result of
technology that developed as a result of this pursuit to measure gravitational
this pursuit to measure gravitational
this pursuit to measure gravitational waves was the laser interferometer and
waves was the laser interferometer and
waves was the laser interferometer and groups around the world began to develop
groups around the world began to develop
groups around the world began to develop this and perfect it a laser
this and perfect it a laser
this and perfect it a laser interferometer is a device with which we
interferometer is a device with which we
interferometer is a device with which we can measure very small changes in the
can measure very small changes in the
can measure very small changes in the distance between two mirrors and the
distance between two mirrors and the
distance between two mirrors and the laser interferometer is made of a beam
laser interferometer is made of a beam
laser interferometer is made of a beam splitter laser to end mirrors as the
splitter laser to end mirrors as the
splitter laser to end mirrors as the light which we model as a wave travels
light which we model as a wave travels
light which we model as a wave travels down these two arms the beam splitter
down these two arms the beam splitter
down these two arms the beam splitter sending some light one direction other
sending some light one direction other
sending some light one direction other light the other direction causes the
light the other direction causes the
light the other direction causes the light to recombine back at the beam
light to recombine back at the beam
light to recombine back at the beam splitter where the it experiences either
splitter where the it experiences either
splitter where the it experiences either destructive or constructive interference
destructive or constructive interference
destructive or constructive interference as the gravitational wave passes through
as the gravitational wave passes through
as the gravitational wave passes through the result is a changing pattern of
the result is a changing pattern of
the result is a changing pattern of light and dark spots on the photo
light and dark spots on the photo
light and dark spots on the photo detector information which tells us
detector information which tells us
detector information which tells us about the gravitational wave the
about the gravitational wave the
about the gravitational wave the gravitational wave detectors the laser
gravitational wave detectors the laser
gravitational wave detectors the laser interferometers are much more
interferometers are much more
interferometers are much more complicated than what you see here one
complicated than what you see here one
complicated than what you see here one problem is that you can’t simply put
problem is that you can’t simply put
problem is that you can’t simply put these mirrors on the ground or on a
these mirrors on the ground or on a
these mirrors on the ground or on a table the earth after all is an
table the earth after all is an
table the earth after all is an extremely noisy place you don’t feel it
extremely noisy place you don’t feel it
extremely noisy place you don’t feel it in your everyday lives but it’s moving a
in your everyday lives but it’s moving a
in your everyday lives but it’s moving a lot from this perspective from seismic
lot from this perspective from seismic
lot from this perspective from seismic activity from human activity cars
activity from human activity cars
activity from human activity cars driving over bumps down the road we need
driving over bumps down the road we need
driving over bumps down the road we need to reduce the motion of these mirrors
to reduce the motion of these mirrors
to reduce the motion of these mirrors compared to that on the earth by over a
compared to that on the earth by over a
compared to that on the earth by over a factor of a billion and the way that we
factor of a billion and the way that we
factor of a billion and the way that we do so is by hanging them as pendulum
do so is by hanging them as pendulum
do so is by hanging them as pendulum much like what you would find in your
much like what you would find in your
much like what you would find in your grandfather’s clock these pendulum that
grandfather’s clock these pendulum that
grandfather’s clock these pendulum that are used at LIGO for instance are not
are used at LIGO for instance are not
are used at LIGO for instance are not only consisting of a mirror with string
only consisting of a mirror with string
only consisting of a mirror with string but it’s a mirror suspended by another
but it’s a mirror suspended by another
but it’s a mirror suspended by another mass suspended by another mass suspended
mass suspended by another mass suspended
mass suspended by another mass suspended by another mass this quadruple
by another mass this quadruple
by another mass this quadruple suspension was a project which several
suspension was a project which several
suspension was a project which several institutions around the world worked to
institutions around the world worked to
institutions around the world worked to design and build now we need to not only
design and build now we need to not only
design and build now we need to not only protect the mirrors from the motion of
protect the mirrors from the motion of
protect the mirrors from the motion of the earth beneath them but also from
the earth beneath them but also from
the earth beneath them but also from other environmental factors like wind we
other environmental factors like wind we
other environmental factors like wind we placed them in vacuum tanks the
placed them in vacuum tanks the
placed them in vacuum tanks the molecules in the air effect not only in
molecules in the air effect not only in
molecules in the air effect not only in the mirrors
the mirrors
the mirrors but also the laser beam itself so these
but also the laser beam itself so these
but also the laser beam itself so these vacuum tanks and tubes exist along the
vacuum tanks and tubes exist along the
vacuum tanks and tubes exist along the entire stretch of the interferometer
entire stretch of the interferometer
entire stretch of the interferometer arms which in the case of LIGO is four
arms which in the case of LIGO is four
arms which in the case of LIGO is four kilometers or about two and a half miles
now this is not the only detector there
now this is not the only detector there is a network around the world we have
is a network around the world we have
is a network around the world we have this one here in nearby in Livingston
this one here in nearby in Livingston
this one here in nearby in Livingston Louisiana the other Washington state
Louisiana the other Washington state
Louisiana the other Washington state were the two LIGO detectors that made
were the two LIGO detectors that made
were the two LIGO detectors that made this detection last year but others are
this detection last year but others are
this detection last year but others are being built in Italy in Japan and there
being built in Italy in Japan and there
being built in Italy in Japan and there will be one that’s built in India as
will be one that’s built in India as
will be one that’s built in India as well I myself spent the total of seven
well I myself spent the total of seven
well I myself spent the total of seven years working at both the Livingston and
years working at both the Livingston and
years working at both the Livingston and the German detectors one of my
the German detectors one of my
the German detectors one of my contributions has to do with this fact
contributions has to do with this fact
contributions has to do with this fact that we need to protect the mirrors from
that we need to protect the mirrors from
that we need to protect the mirrors from moving due to anything other than
moving due to anything other than
moving due to anything other than gravitational waves one problem is that
gravitational waves one problem is that
gravitational waves one problem is that the laser light that we use in the
the laser light that we use in the
the laser light that we use in the interferometers is very powerful and
interferometers is very powerful and
interferometers is very powerful and this light itself as it is reflected off
this light itself as it is reflected off
this light itself as it is reflected off of the mirrors it pushes on the mirrors
of the mirrors it pushes on the mirrors
of the mirrors it pushes on the mirrors and can cause them to come out of
and can cause them to come out of
and can cause them to come out of orientation with respect to one another
orientation with respect to one another
orientation with respect to one another and be misaligned I worked on a scheme
and be misaligned I worked on a scheme
and be misaligned I worked on a scheme to correct this misalignment so my
to correct this misalignment so my
to correct this misalignment so my project along with many others is to
project along with many others is to
project along with many others is to look towards the future of the field to
look towards the future of the field to
look towards the future of the field to here at University of Mississippi we
here at University of Mississippi we
here at University of Mississippi we have built up a lab which involves both
have built up a lab which involves both
have built up a lab which involves both undergraduates and graduate students to
undergraduates and graduate students to
undergraduates and graduate students to build technology for the next generation
build technology for the next generation
build technology for the next generation of detectors after all we want to be
of detectors after all we want to be
of detectors after all we want to be able to detect signals not just once
able to detect signals not just once
able to detect signals not just once every few months but to detect dozens
every few months but to detect dozens
every few months but to detect dozens per day and in order to do this it
per day and in order to do this it
per day and in order to do this it requires us pushing the limits of
requires us pushing the limits of
requires us pushing the limits of technology and doing so requires a
technology and doing so requires a
technology and doing so requires a community of scientists the
community of scientists the
community of scientists the the world to achieve this goal and as we
the world to achieve this goal and as we
the world to achieve this goal and as we do so and as we build the next
do so and as we build the next
do so and as we build the next generation of detectors which might look
generation of detectors which might look
generation of detectors which might look like this one here they might be
like this one here they might be
like this one here they might be underground much longer and possibly
underground much longer and possibly
underground much longer and possibly tuned to hear different tones of the
tuned to hear different tones of the
tuned to hear different tones of the sounds coming from space as we build
sounds coming from space as we build
sounds coming from space as we build this network of future detectors we’ll
this network of future detectors we’ll
this network of future detectors we’ll get closer and closer to being able to
get closer and closer to being able to
get closer and closer to being able to hear all of the sounds from the universe
hear all of the sounds from the universe
hear all of the sounds from the universe our current best guess of what that
our current best guess of what that
our current best guess of what that might sound like one day is this
[Music]
[Music] what we have done is not only opened up
what we have done is not only opened up
what we have done is not only opened up a new way of looking at universe we have
a new way of looking at universe we have
a new way of looking at universe we have detected gravitational waves we can now
detected gravitational waves we can now
detected gravitational waves we can now not only see what is out there in the
not only see what is out there in the
not only see what is out there in the universe with our eyes or from other
universe with our eyes or from other
universe with our eyes or from other wavelengths of light but we now have
wavelengths of light but we now have
wavelengths of light but we now have ears we can listen to the universe and
ears we can listen to the universe and
ears we can listen to the universe and every time in the past that some new
every time in the past that some new
every time in the past that some new astronomy has been developed something
astronomy has been developed something
astronomy has been developed something unexpected has been found who knows what
unexpected has been found who knows what
unexpected has been found who knows what we might find next thank you
we might find next thank you
we might find next thank you [Applause]
[Applause]
[Applause] [Music]
”
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